iOLOGY 

LIBRARY 


i 


GIFT  OF 
Pacific  Coast 

al     of*    Ti 


BIOLOGY 


o 

g 


w 


CHEMISTRY 

and    ,  ;  -,  ^ 

TOXICOLOGY  /or 


BY 

PHILIP  ASHER,  Ph.  G.,  M.  D. 

DEAN  AND  PROFESSOR  OF  CHEMISTRY  AT  THE  NEW  ORLEANS  COLLEGE 
OF  PHARMACY,   NEW  ORLEANS 


PHILADELPHIA  AND  LONDON 

W.    B.    SAUNDERS    COMPANY 

1914 


QD3I 


L.itOGt 

LIBRA!" 

0 


G  I  FT  PAG  I  FIG  GO  A  JRN  AL 

OF   NURSING  TO  H/3£^£   OEPT,; 


Copyright,  1914,  by  W.  B.  Saunders  Company 


PRINTED    IN    AMERICA 


PRESS    OF 

W.    B.    8AUNDER8    COMPANY 
PHILADELPHIA 


PREFACE 


IN  offering  this  volume  to  that  class  of  noble  and  sacri- 
ficing women  who  are  to  devote  their  life's  work  to  the 
aid  of  suffering  humanity  and  to  assist  the  physician 
in  his  labors,  the  author  feels  that  a  work  of  this  small 
compass  may  be  of  service  to  them  in  the  better  under- 
standing of  the  many  problems  with  which  they  may 
be  brought  in  daily  contact.  If,  with  all  its  simplicity, 
it  be  found  of  service  to  the  great  number  following  these 
fields  of  endeavor  and  they  gain  such  information  as 
will  be  of  practical  service  to  them,  the  author  feels 
that  his  efforts  will  have  been  well  repaid.  It  has  been 
his  constant  aim  to  make  this  work  as  instructive  as 
its  compactness  will  permit,  and  his  object  has  been  to 
keep  constantly  before  the  student  its  practical  import, 
so  that  this  little  volume  may  also  be  her  companion 
after  leaving  her  home  of  instruction. 

The  author  was  for  a  long  time  undecided  to  take  up 
this  task,  but  upon  the  earnest  solicitation  of  his  friends, 
thoroughly  conversant  with  nursing,  as  to  the  need  of 
a  book  of  such  elementary  character,  this  work  was  un- 
dertaken. Yet,  notwithstanding  such  encouragement, 
he  feels  that  an  apology  is  due  for  the  very  element- 
ary nature  of  this  work,  and  requests  the  reader  to  bear 
in  mind  that  the  treatise  is  not  intended  as  a  text-book 
of  this  most  interesting  science,  with  its  many  ramifica- 

743510 


6  PREFACE 

tions,  but  merely  as  an  aid  to  those  taking  up  the  study 
of  Nursing,  and  if  a  more  thorough  knowledge  of  tne 
subject  is  desired,  it  is  advised  that  some  of  the  numer- 
ous works  upon  chemistry  be  consulted. 

Under  the  captions  of  those  substances  which  are 
used  in  medicine  there  is  given  their  medicinal  proper- 
ties, doses,  and  uses.  No  attempt  has  been  made  to 
give  exact  atomic  and  molecular  weights,  which  have 
been  rounded  off  to  whole  numbers.  The  text  contains 
formulae  of  compounds,  which  are  added  not  with  a 
view  of  abbreviation,  but  to  familiarize  the  student 
with  them. 

Chemical  equations  are  given  with  only  the  more 
important  reactions,  and,  in  a  number  of  instances, 
with  no  intention  of  having  the  student  study  them, 
but  merely  as  illustrations. 

PHILIP  ASHER. 

NEW  ORLEANS,  LA., 

October,  1914. 


CONTENTS 


PAGE 

INTRODUCTION n 

NOMENCLATURE 12 

PART  I 

NON-METALLIC  ELEMENTS 22 

Hydrogen 22 

Oxygen 23 

Ozone 25 

Water 26 

Hydrogen  Peroxid  or  Hydrogen  Dioxid 30 

Nitrogen 31 

Ammonia 32 

Compounds  of  Nitrogen  and  Oxygen 34 

Nitrogen  Monoxid 34 

Nitrogen  Dioxid  or  Nitric  Acid 35 

Nitric  Acid 35 

The  Air  or  Atmosphere 37 

Carbon 38 

Silicon 45 

Boron 45 

Sulphur 47 

Phosphorus 52 

Halogens 58 

Chlorin 59 

lodin 62 

Bromin 65 

Fluorin 66 

Acids  of  the  Halogens 67 

METALLIC  ELEMENTS 68 

Alkali  Metals 71 

Potassium  and  Sodium 72 

7 


8  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Lithium  .............................  ......  .............  80 

Ammonium  Compounds  ..................................  80 

Alkaline  Earth  Metals  ....................................  82 

Calcium  ...........  ,  ....................................  82 

Strontium  ..................  .............................  84 

Barium  .................................................  85 

Magnesium  ...........  .  .................................  86 

Aluminum  ..............................................  87 

Iron  .........................  .  ..........................  89 

Manganese  ..............................................  93 

Chromium  ..............................................  95 

Nickel  ..........................................  ........  96 

Cobalt  ..................................................  97 

Zinc  ....................................................  97 


99 

Copper  .................................................  102 

Bismuth  ................................................  104 

Silver  .................................  .................  107 

Mercury  ................................................  109 

Arsenic  ..................................................  114 

Antimony  ...............................................  1  16 


PART  II 

CHEMISTRY  OF  CARBON  AND  ITS  COMPOUNDS 119 

Halogen  Derivatives,  or  Haloid  Ethers 1 23 

Alcohols 125 

Aldehyds 128 

Ketones 130 

Sulphur  Derivatives 131 

Ethers 131 

Organic  Acids 134 

Dibasic  Acids 136 

Amino-acids 139 

Amins 140 

Aromatic,  Closed  Chain,  or  Cyclic  Hydrocarbons 141 

Isomeric  Compounds  of  the  Aromatic  Hydrocarbons 144 

Heterocyclic  Hydrocarbons 150 

Terpenes 151 

Carbohydrates 153 

Alkaloids 155 


CONTENTS  9 

PART  III 

PAGE 

PHYSIOLOGIC  CHEMISTRY 161 

Proteins 161 

Milk 164 

Urine 168 

Pathologic  Constituents  of  Urine  and  Tests 172 


INDEX.  .  181 


CHEMISTRY  AND  TOXICOLOGY 
FOR  NURSES 


INTRODUCTION     '- :  -  >  - 

CHEMISTRY  is  the  science  that  teaches  of  the  ele- 
ments and  their  compounds,  and  investigates  the  laws 
of  their  combinations. 

Elements  are  those  particles  of  matter  that,  up  to 
the  present  time,  have  not  been  reduced  to  simpler 
ones.  For  example,  oxygen  is  said  to  be  an  element 
because,  no  matter  how  it  may  be  treated,  it  cannot  be 
reduced  any  further.  The  same  is  true  of  iron  and  the 
other  elements.  Water,  on  the  other  hand,  is  a  com- 
pound because  we  are  able  to  decompose  it  into  two 
elements,  viz.,  hydrogen  and  oxygen. 

ELEMENTS  FOUND  IN  THE  BODY 

Carbon 13.5  per  cent. 

Hydrogen 9.1         " 

Nitrogen 2.5        " 

Oxygen 72.0         " 

These  constitute  about  97  per  cent,  of  the  total  body 
weight;  the  other  3  per  cent,  is  divided  in  various  pro- 
portions among  the  following  elements:  Phosphorus, 

11 


12  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

calcium,  sulphur,  sodium,  potassium,  chlorin,  fluorin 
iron,  silicon,  magnesium,  and  arsenic. 

The  elements  are  divided  into  two  classes :  the  metals 
and  the  non-metals;  the  former  usually  forming  the 
bases  of  compounds,  and  the  latter  entering  into  the 
formation  of  «yf.ds.; 

I  /T&& i  elements  are  expressed  by  symbols.  Symbols 
are  either  single  letters  or  two  letters  signifying  the 
element  they  represent.  For  instance,  0  is  the  symbol 
of  oxygen;  it  is  the  initial  letter  of  that  word.  The 
commoner  elements  are  usually  expressed  by  a  single 
letter,  but  when  one  element  has  the  same  initial  letter 
as  another  element  its  difference  is  shown  by  adding  a 
small  letter  to  the  initial  letter  of  the  element.  For 
example,  carbon  is  expressed  by  C,  while  calcium  is  Ca, 
and  cobalt  is  Co. 

The  elements  combine  to  form  compounds  which  are 
divided  into  two  main  classes — the  organic  and  in- 
organic. 

NOMENCLATURE 

Before  the  student  can  understand  the  study  of 
chemistry,  a  knowledge  of  how  the  compounds  are 
named  is  necessary. 

The  compounds  are  divided  into  a  great  number  of 
classes,  of  which  the  acids  and  salts  constitute  a  large 
majority. 

Acids  are  defined  as  those  substances  which  possess 
a  sour  taste  and  have  the  property  of  changing  vegetable 


NOMENCLATURE  13 

colors,  and  which,  when  added  to  metals,  give  off  hydro- 
gen. They  are  divided  into  two  main  classes:  the 
binary  acids  and  the  oxyacids. 

A  binary  acid,  as  its  name  implies,  is  only  composed 
of  two  elements.  It  contains  no  oxygen.  An  oxyacid 
is  one  containing  oxygen. 

A  binary  acid  forms  salts  ending  in  "id."  In  fact, 
all  binary  compounds,  that  is,  those  compounds  com- 
posed of  but  two  elements,  end  in  "id."  HC1  is  the 
formula  of  hydrochloric  acid,  which,  when  it  is  added 
to  a  metal,  forms  a  salt  known  as  a  chlorid.  If  iron  were 
used,  the  salt  formed  would  be  iron  chlorid.  HBr  is 
hydrobromic  acid,  and  its  compounds  or  salts  are 
bromids.  If  iron  and  sulphur  were  heated  together, 
the  resulting  compound  would  be  iron  sulphid. 

Oxyacids  are  subdivided  into  three  classes:  those  con- 
taining the  greatest  amount  of  oxygen,  called  the  "ic" 
acids;  those  with  one  atom  of  oxygen  less  than  the  "ic" 
acids,  the  "ous"  acids;  and  those  having  still  one  atom 
of  oxygen  less  than  the  "ous"  acids,  or  two  atoms  of 
oxygen  less  than  the  "ic"  acids,  the  "hypo — ous"  acids. 
The  oxyacids  owe  their  characteristic  property  to  an 
element  which  distinguishes  them  from  the  other  oxy- 
acids. For  instance,  the  characteristic  element  of 
nitric  acid  is  nitrogen;  while  in  sulphuric  acid  it  is  sul- 
phur. H2SO4  is  the  formula  of  sulphuric  acid,  it  con- 
tains the  largest  amount  of  oxygen.  H2S03  is  sul- 
phurous acid,  and  it  has  one  atom  of  oxygen  less  than 


14  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

the  preceding  acid;  H2S02  is  hyposulphurous  acid  and 
contains  one  atom  of  oxygen  less  than  sulphurous  and 
two  atoms  less  than  the  sulphimc.  The  "ic"  acids 
form  salts  ending  in  "ate";  the  "ous"  acids  ending  in 
"ite";  while  the  "hypo — ous"  acids  form  the  "hypo — - 
ites."  Thus,  e.  g.,  sulphuric  acid  forms  sulphates; 
sulphurous  acid  forms  sulphites;  while  hyposulphurous 
acid  produces  hyposulphites. 

From  a  strictly  theoretic  point  of  view,  all  acids, 
whether  binary  or  oxyacids,  are  divided  in  two  parts: 
the  replaceable  hydrogen  and  the  acid  radical. 

Replaceable  hydrogen  is  THAT  HYDROGEN  that  an  acid 
contains  which  can  be  replaced  by  a  metal  or  base. 
When  an  acid  acts  upon  a  metal  an  evolution  of  a  gas  is 
noticed;  this  gas  is  the  replaceable  hydrogen  given  off 
by  the  acid. 

All  acids  contain  hydrogen,  but  all  the  hydrogen  of 
all  acids  cannot  be  replaced.  Sulphuric  acid,  H2SO4, 
contains  two  atoms  of  hydrogen,  both  of  which  can  be 
replaced.  Acetic  acid,  HC2H3O2,  contains  four  atoms 
of  hydrogen,  only  one  of  which  can  be  replaced.  For 
convenience  the  number  of  replaceable  hydrogens  an 
acid  contains  is  shown  by  placing  them  at  the  beginning 
of  the  formula: 

H2SO4  H3PO4  HN03         HC3H3O2 

Sulphuric  Phosphoric  Nitric  Acetic  acid, 

acid.  acid.  acid. 

Acid  Radicle. — Radicles  are  groups  of  unsaturated 
elements  playing  the  part  of  single  elements.  Radicles 


NOMENCLATURE  15 

cannot  exist  by  themselves,  only  in  combination,  as 
nothing  exists,  from  the  chemical  aspect,  unless  all 
its  bonds  or  valencies  are  satisfied.  The  graphic 
formula  of  sulphuric  acid,  or  the  formula  which  por- 
trays how  each  element  in  a  compound  is  joined 
to  the  other,  is 

H— Ox  ^O 

/SC 

H— <K     X) 
If  the  hydrogen  is  removed,  there  remains 


~°\  ^° 
-0><0 


in  which  two  of  its  bonds  are  not  taken  up  or  are  un- 

// 

saturated,  and  which  is  usually  expressed  by  (804), 
the  two  dashes  over  it  indicating  its  valence.  As 
stated  above,  it  can  only  exist  in  combination.  It  is 
the  acid  radicle  of  sulphuric  acid,  the  part  that  remains 
after  the  removal  of  the  replaceable  hydrogen. 

Valence  is  the  relative  volumetric  proportion  in 
which  elements  combine  with  one  another.  The  com- 
bining power  of  H  is  taken  as  the  standard  or  unit: 
it  is  said  to  have  a  combining  power,  valence,  quan- 
tivalence,  atomicity,  or  bond  of  one.  In  the  formula 
H2O  it  will  be  noticed  that  it  takes  2  H  to  combine 
with  one  0;  and  since  the  valence  of  H  is  i,  as  before 
said,  and  since  it  takes  2  H  to  combine  with  one  O, 
the  inference  is  that  the  valence  of  O  is  2.  The  valence 


16  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

or  combining  power  of  elements  is  usually  expressed 
by  dashes  or  Roman  numerals  placed  over  their  sym- 
bols, thus: 

i  '  iij//  iii        ///  v  vi 

H  or  H  O  or  O  N  or  O  P  S 

Valencies  are  also  represented  graphically,  each  dash 
indicating  a  valence  or  bond,  as  shown  in  the  following 
examples: 

— N—  or  N= 

If  — O —  were  combined  with  one  H,  one  of  the 
bonds  of  O  would  remain  unsaturated  or  unsatisfied, 
thus:  H — 0 — .  Under  such  a  condition  a  compound 
cannot  exist.  If  the  remaining  bond  of  O  were  taken 
up  or  combined  with  H,  it  would  form  H — 0 — H. 
Here  all  the  bonds  are  saturated  or  satisfied,  and  the 
compound  H2O,  or  water,  results. 

Iron  and  sulphur  each  has  two  bonds,  and,  their 
valencies  being  equal,  they  combine  in  equal  volumes: 
Fe=S  or  FeS. 

But  where  the  valencies  of  the  elements  are  different, 
they  combine  in  unequal  volumes.  If  we  take  Bi 
(bismuth),  which  has  three  bonds,  and  S  (sulphur), 
which  has  two  bonds,  it  will  be  readily  understood 
that  were  equal  volumes  of  each  element  taken,  one 
bond  of  the  Bi  would  remain  unsatisfied,  thus:  Bill5. 
As  many  volumes  of  S  should  be  taken  as  there  are 
bonds  of  Bi,  namely,  3,  and  as  many  volumes  of  Bi 


NOMENCLATURE  17 

should  be  taken  as  there  are  bonds  of  S,  namely,  2,  so 
as  to  satisfy  all  the  bonds,  thus: 

Bi==S  ///  / 

yS,  which,  reduced  to  the  ordinary  formula,  is  1^283. 
Bi-S 

Salts  are  acids  in  which  all  or  part  of  the  replace- 
able hydrogen  has  been  replaced  by  a  metal  or  base, 
and  may  also  be  regarded  as  a  combination  of  either 
a  metal  or  a  base  with  an  acid  radicle.  If  all  the  H 
in  H2S04  were  replaced  by  sodium  (Na),  it  would 
form  sodium  sulphate,  Na2SC>4,  while  if  only  one  of  the 
hydrogen  was  replaced,  sodium  bisulphate,  or  acid 
sulphate,  NaHSO4,  would  be  the  result.  The  method 
of  obtaining  the  correct  formula  of  any  salt  will  be 
shown  by  the  following  examples: 

It  is  desired  to  know  the  formula  of  potassium  phos- 
phite. The  symbol  of  potassium  is  K,  and  it  has  a 
valence  of  one,  or,  as  it  is  frequently  expressed,  it  has 
one  bond.  As  was  shown  under  the  oxy acids,  the  "ous" 
acids  form  salts  ending  in  "ite";  and  as  a  phosphate 
is  desired,  phosphorus  acid  must  be  taken. 

H3P04  is  phosphoric  acid,  and  it  was  shown  above 
that  an  "ous"  acid  contains  one  atom  of  oxygen  less  than 

the  "ic"  acid,  so  the  formula  of  phosphorus  acid  is 

/// 

H3PO3,  removing  the  replaceable  hydrogen  (PO3)  re- 
mains, having  a  valence  of  three,  as  the  valence  of 
an  acid  is  known  by  its  number  of  replaceable  hy- 
drogen. 


1 8  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

The  next  step  is  to  combine  the  metal  or  base  with 

the  acid  radicle.      In  this  case  it  is  the  K  with  the 
/// 

(PO3),  but  it  will  be  observed  that  each  of  these  valen- 
cies differ,  so  that  as  many  parts  of  the  base  or  metal 
are  taken  as  the  valency  of  the  acid  radicle,  which 
is  three,  and  as  many  of  the  acid  radicles  are  taken  as 
there  are  bonds  in  the  metal,  which  is  one.  Com- 
bining these  in  the  proportions  just  outlined  gives 
/  /// 

us  a  formula  of  K3(PO3).  In  the  example  just  shown 
it  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  place  the  (PO3)  in 
parentheses,  but  examples  will  be  shown  in  which  it  is 
most  essential.  It  is  desired  to  know  the  formula  of 
bismuth  hyposulphite.  Bi  is  bismuth  and  it  has  three 
bonds.  To  produce  a  hyposulphite  requires  hypo- 
sulphurous  acid,  which  has  two  atoms  of  oxygen  less 

than  H2SO4,  making  it  H2S02;  its  acid  radicle  will  be 
ft 

(802);  combining  these  as  indicated  above  gives  us 
///  // 

Bi2(SO2)3.  Two  of  the  Bi  were  taken  because  the  acid 
radicle  has  two  bonds,  and  three  of  the  acid  radicles 
were  used  because  Bi  has  three  bonds. 

Where  the  metal  and  acid  radicle  have  the  same 

valence,  only  one  part  of  each  need  be  taken.     Copper 
//      // 

sulphate  is  Cu(SO4),  as  it  will  be  seen  that  in  this  case 

// 

both  the  copper  and  the  acid  radicle  (864)  each  have 
the  same  valence. 

Bases. — The    term    "base"    has    several    meanings. 
It  is  commonly  defined  in  works  on  chemistry  as  a 


NOMENCLATURE  19 

substance  which  is  soluble  in  water  and  will  turn  red 
litmus  blue,  and  which,  when  combined  with  acids, 
forms  salts. 

In  the  definition  of  a  "salt,"  given  above,  the  term 
"base"  has  a  somewhat  different  meaning,  and  applies 
to  those  groups  of  radicles  with  properties  opposite  to 
"acid  radicles."  Under  the  Chemistry  of  the  Carbon 
Compounds  (q.  v.)t  "ethane"  is  shown  to  have  the 
formula  C2H6. 

If  one  H  is  removed,  the  radicle,  residue,  or  base 
/ 

"ethyl"  (C2H5)  remains.  This  combines  with  acid 
radicles,  forming  salts  similarly  to  the  above: 

(C2H5)C1,  (C2H5)N03,  (C2H5)2S04 

Ethyl  ehlorid.  Ethyl  nitrate.  Ethyl  sulphate. 

r 

(NEQ  is  the  radicle  "ammonium,"  and  is  the  base  of 
the  ammonium  compounds,  and,  when  combined  with 
acid  radicles,  it  forms  salts: 

(NHJCl,  (NH4)N03,  (NHJ2SO, 

Ammonium  ehlorid.       Ammonium  nitrate.       Ammonium  sulphate. 

Atomic  Weight. — In  the  formula  of  H2SO4  the  ele- 
ments composing  it  are  to  be  regarded  as  if  they  exist 
by  volume,  and  that  there  are  two  volumes  of  H,  one 
of  S,  and  four  of  O,  provided  each  element  was  in  the 
gaseous  state. 

In  considering  the  weight  of  each  element  in  H^SCX 
we  find  a  great  difference.  If  equal  volumes  of  H  and 


20  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

O  were  taken,  the  weight  of  each  volume  would  be  dif- 
ferent. Since  hydrogen  is  the  lightest  substance  known, 
it  is  taken  as  the  standard,  and  it  would  be  found  that 
an  equal  volume  of  oxygen  would  weigh  sixteen  times 
more  than  hydrogen.  It  will  also  be  found  that  when 
elements  combine  with  one  another  they  do  so  in  pro- 
portion to  their  atomic  weight,  based  upon  the  valence 
of  one.  Atomic  weight  may  then  be  denned  as  the 
weight  of  an  element  compared  to  the  weight  of  an 
equal  volume  of  hydrogen  or  the  relative  weight  which 
elements  combine  with  one  another,  based  upon  the 
valence  of  one. 

Molecular  Weight. — When  two  or  more  atoms  com- 
bine they  form  molecules,  and  the  combined  weight  of 
these  atoms  is  known  as  molecular  weight.  In  H2SO4 
we  have  two  volumes  of  H  with  an  atomic  weight  of 
one  for  each  of  the  H,  or  two  for  both;  sulphur  has  an 
atomic  weight  of  thirty- two;  and  the  four  O,  each  with 
an  atomic  weight  of  sixteen,  or  sixty-four;  the  sum  of 
these  will  be  ninety-eight,  or  we  state  that  the  molecular 
weight  of  H2S04  is  ninety-eight. 

Chemistry  deals  only  with  material  things,  such  as 
we  may  appreciate  by  the  various  senses.  Hence, 
matter  is  defined  as  anything  occupying  space.  It 
may  be  either  visible  or  invisible.  Iron  is  matter  which 
can  be  seen;  but  we  are  constantly  surrounded  by 
matter  which  cannot  be  seen,  the  air;  yet  it  is  matter 
because  it  occupies  space. 


NOMENCLATURE  21 

Matter  is  divided  according  to  its  size  into  masses, 
molecules,  and  atoms. 

A  mass  is  a  large  aggregation  of  molecules. 

A  molecule  is  the  smallest  particle  of  matter  that  can 
exist  by  itself,  and  it  is  composed  of  at  least  two  atoms. 

An  atom  is  the  smallest  particle  of  matter  that  can 
exist  even  in  combination,  and  as  two  or  more  atoms 
produce  a  molecule,  atoms  do  not  exist  in  the  free  state. 


PART   I 

NON-METALLIC  ELEMENTS 
HYDROGEN 

Symbol,  H;  Atomic  weight,  i;  Molecular  weight,  2;  Density,  2; 
Valence,  i. 

Discovered  by  Paracelsus  in  the  i6th  century;  its 
elementary  nature  was  first  recognized  by  Cavendish. 
Its  name  is  derived  from  the  Greek,  hudor,  water,  and 
gennao,  to  generate,  in  allusion  to  the  formation  of 
water  when  burned  in  the  presence  of  air  or  oxygen. 

Occurrence  in  Nature. — Hydrogen  is  found  in  water, 
of  which  it  constitutes  two-thirds  by  volume,  when 
water  is  decomposed  into  its  components,  and  one- 
ninth  by  weight.  It  is  found  in  all  acids.  No  true 
acid  exists  unless  it  contains  hydrogen.  It  is  con- 
tained in  all  animal  and  vegetable  matter. 

Preparation. — Hydrogen  can  be  obtained  from  water, 
which  has  previously  been  acidified  with  H2S04,  by  pass- 
ing a  current  of  electricity  through  it. 
H20    =    2H    +    O 

It  is  made  whenever  a  dilute  acid  acts  upon  a  metal. 

Zn    +    H2SO4     =     ZnSO4    +     2H 
Zinc.  Zinc  sulphate. 

Fe     +     2HC1     =     FeCl2    +     2H 

Iron.       Hydrochloric  Iron 

acid.  chlorid. 


OXYGEN  23 

Properties. — It  is  a  colorless,  odorless,  and  tasteless 
gas.  It  is  a  non-supporter  of  life  and  combustion,  and 
when  ignited  combines  with  oxygen  to  form  water. 
Under  cold  and  pressure  it  can  be  liquefied  and  also 
converted  into  the  solid  state.  It  is  the  lightest  sub- 
stance known,  and  on  this  account  is  taken  as  the 
unit  of  atomic  weight  and  density  of  gases.  Its  density 
compared  to  air  is  .0692.  One  liter  at  o°  C.  (32°  F.) 
and  barometric  pressure  of  760  mm.  weighs  .0896  gm.; 
100  cubic  inches  weigh  2.26  gr.  When  mixed  with  air 
or  oxygen  and  ignited  it  combines  with  explosive  force, 
so  that  care  must  be  exercised  in  seeing  that  all  the 
oxygen  is  out  of  the  generator  before  igniting  it. 

OXYGEN 

Symbol,  O;  Atomic  weight,  16;  Molecular  weight,  32;  Density,  16; 

Valence,  2. 

Discovered  by  Priestly  in  1774  and  about  the  same 
time  by  Scheele,  but  independently  of  the  former  dis- 
coverer. It  was  called  oxygen,  from  oxus,  an  acid,  and 
gennao,  to  generate,  from  the  belief  that  it  was  essential 
to  all  acids,  but,  as  has  been  shown  under  Binary  Acids, 
these  contain  no  oxygen. 

Occurrence  in  Nature. — Oxygen  is  found  in  the  at- 
mosphere, of  which  it  constitutes  about  one-fifth  by 
volume.  It  forms  between  33  and  45  per  cent,  of  the 
earth's  crust.  It  is  contained  in  water,  forming  one- 
third  by  volume  and  eight-ninths  of  it  by  weight.  It 


24  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

is  also  found   throughout   the   animal   and  vegetable 
kingdoms. 

Preparation. — At  one  time  it  was  largely  made  by 
heating  potassium  chlorate;  and  when  made  by  this 
method  and  was  to  be  used  for  medicinal  purposes  it 
was  freed  from  the  accompanying  chlorin  by  passing 
it  through  flasks  containing  a  solution  of  sodium  hy- 
droxid  and  then  through  water. 

KC1O3  3O       +       KC1 

Potassium  chlorate.  Potassium  cblorid. 

Since  electricity  is  cheaply  obtained  today,  it  is 
used  to  decompose  water,  as  shown  under  Hydrogen. 

Properties. — It  is  a  colorless,  odorless,  and  tasteless 
gas,  which  under  cold  and  pressure  may  be  both  lique- 
fied and  solidified.  It  combines  with  all  elements  ex- 
cept fluorin,  which  up  to  the  present  time  has  not  been 
combined  with  it,  either  directly  or  indirectly.  Water 
dissolves  about  3  per  cent,  of  it  by  volume  and  its 
solution  in  water  is  of  great  importance.  Water  that 
has  stood  in  a  warm  place  loses  its  dissolved  oxygen 
and  possesses  a  flat  taste,  and  can  be  revivified  by  pass- 
ing it  from  one  vessel  to  another.  Its  presence  enables 
fish  to  live  in  water,  as  these  animals  breathe  it  through 
their  gills.  It  also  serves  as  a  purifying  agent  by  burn- 
ing up  the  organic  impurities  that  may  be  contained  in 
water.  This  is  why  a  running  stream  that  has  had 
sewerage  emptied  into  it  may,  within  a  few  miles  from 
the  source  of  contamination,  be  found  to  be  practically 


OZONE  25 

free  of  same.  It  is  a  supporter  of  life  and  combustion, 
as  nothing  can  live  nor  burn  without  it.  Hence,  to  cut 
off  its  supply  would  extinguish  both  life  and  flame. 

Uses. — It  is  largely  used  today  in  those  diseases  where 
an  insufficiency  of  it  is  supplied  to  the  system.  It  is 
also  used  to  resuscitate  persons  after  drowning,  and  is 
more  beneficial  in  such  cases  than  artificial  respiration. 

OZONE 
ttr 

Symbol,  0;  Valence,  3;  Molecular  weight,  48. 

This  is  an  allotropic  form  of  oxygen,  and  is  produced 
when  non-luminous  electric  discharges  are  passed 
through  oxygen.  It  may  also  be  called  condensed  oxy- 
gen. In  its  production  three  molecules  of  oxygen  are 
condensed  to  form  two  molecules  of  ozone,  according  to 
the  following  equation: 

it  /// 

3O3       =       2O3 

It  differs  from  oxygen  by  possessing  a  disagreeable 
odor,  from  which  its  name  was  derived  (0ms,  meaning 
stench),  and  by  being  more  active  in  its  chemical  be- 
havior than  oxygen.  Substances  that  are  not  affected 
by  oxygen  are  readily  decomposed  by  it.  At  one  time 
the  popular  belief  was  that  it  was  contained  in  country 
air,  but  this  was  shown  to  be  erroneous.  It  was  also 
supposed  to  possess  disinfectant  properties,  but  this  has 
not  been  verified  by  experiment,  and  recent  researches 
have  shown  that  the  quantity  sufficient  to  do  so  has 


26  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

an  irritating  and  harmful  effect  upon  persons  inhaling 
it.  A  simple  test  for  its  presence  is  to  expose  starched 
paper,  moistened  with  potassium  iodid;  the  ozone 
liberates  the  iodin  from  the  potassium  iodid,  and  the 
iodin,  in  turn,  acts  upon  the  starch,  turning  it  blue. 
This  test,  however,  is  not  only  true  of  ozone,  but  is 
also  produced  by  other  substances.  When  lightning 
passes  through  the  atmosphere  it  produces  ozone.  It 
is  also  made  by  exposing  moist  phosphorus  to  the  air. 

Allotropism. — We  have  seen  that  oxygen  and  ozone 
are  composed  of  the  same  substance,  yet  possess  differ- 
ent properties.  When  such  a  condition  is  met  in 
chemistry  the  name  allotropism  is  applied  to  it,  which 
is  defined  as  that  property  that  elements  possess  of 
existing  in  two  or  more  forms  and  exhibiting  different 
physical  properties.  The  molecule  of  oxygen  has  two 
atoms,  while  ozone  has  three. 

WATER 

Formula,  H2O;  Molecular  weight,  18;  Density  in  gaseous  condi- 
tion, 9. 

Sources. — Water  is  widely  distributed  throughout 
the  animal  and  vegetable  kingdoms.  The  human  body 
is  composed  of  about  seven-tenths  of  it.  In  potatoes 
we  find  about  75  per  cent.,  and  in  watermelons  as 
much  as  94  per  cent. 

It  is  found  in  the  air  as  fog,  rain,  dew,  and  snow.  In 
the  liquid  form  it  is  found  in  wells,  springs,  rivers,  lakes, 
seas,  and  oceans. 


WATER  27 

Forms. — It  exists  in  the  three  states  of  matter:  gas, 
liquid,  and  solid. 

In  its  solid  form  it  is  known  as  ice;  in  the  gaseous  state 
it  exists  as  vapor  or  steam.  It  is  composed  of  two  vol- 
umes of  hydrogen  and  one  volume  of  oxygen.  It  boils 
at  100°  C.  (212°  F.),  freezes  at  o°  C.  (32°  F.),  and  reaches 
its  point  of  maximum  density  at  4°  C.  (39°  F.).  At 
the  latter  temperature  a  given  volume  of  water  will 
weigh  more  than  it  does  at  any  other  temperature. 

When  water  is  cooled  below  39°  F.  it  expands  in 
volume  until  32°  F.  is  reached.  In  this  respect  it 
forms  an  exception  to  the  rule  that  heat  expands  and 
cold  contracts.  It  is  a  poor  conductor  of  heat  and 
electricity. 

Water  is  divided  into  two  classes:  hard  and  soft.  A 
water  that  does  not  readily  lather  with  soap  is  termed 
hard;  while  one  that  will,  is  called  soft.  The  hard 
waters  are  further  subdivided  into  two  other  classes: 
the  temporary  and  permanent  (hard).  The  former,  as 
its  name  implies,  can  have  its  hardness  removed, 
either  by  boiling  or  chemical  means,  while  the  latter 
cannot. 

The  hardness  of  the  temporary  hard  water  is  princi- 
pally due  to  calcium  bicarbonate,  while  the  permanent 
owes  its  property  largely  to  calcium  sulphate,  but  other 
substances  may  also  play  some  part. 

Its  function  in  the  body,  according  to  Dr.  Gilman 
Thompson,  can  be  summarized  as  follows: 


28  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

(1)  It  enters  into  the  chemical  combination  of  the 
tissues. 

(2)  It  forms  the  chief  ingredient  of  all  fluids  of  the 
body  and  maintains  their  degree  of  dilution. 

(3)  By  moistening  various  surfaces  of  the  body,  such 
as  the  mucous  and  serous  membranes,  it  prevents  fric- 
tion and  the  uncomfortable  symptoms  that  might  result 
from  their  drying. 

(4)  It  furnishes  in  the  blood  and  lymph  a  fluid  medium 
by  which  the  food  may  be  taken  to  remote  parts  of  the 
body  and  the  waste  material  removed,  thus  producing 
rapid  tissue  changes. 

(5)  It  serves  as  a  distributor  of  body  heat. 

(6)  It  regulates  the  body  temperature  by  the  physical 
processes  of  absorption  and  evaporation. 

The  amount  eliminated  daily  from  the  body  is  about 
3  liters,  distributed  as  follows:  Exhalation  from  the 
lungs,  20  per  cent. ;  cutaneous  perspiration,  30  per  cent. ; 
and  by  the  urine  and  feces,  50  per  cent. 

Water  has  been  found  to  be  the  source  by  which 
disease  has  been  conveyed,  and  should  never  be  used 
when  there  is  the  faintest  suspicion  of  its  purity,  unless 
it  has  been  thoroughly  boiled.  This  absolutely  kills 
all  germs  that  may  be  contained  in  it.  It  should  be 
stored  for  use  in  bottles  which  have  been  thoroughly 
cleaned  by  boiling,  and  which  unless  so  treated  would 
only  contaminate  the  water  placed  in  them. 


WATER  29 

Drinking-water. — A  good  drinking-water  is  one  that 
is  free  from  color,  odor  and  taste,  and  practically  free 
from  organic  matter.  This  latter  substance,  if  it  is  con- 
tained in  a  running  stream,  is  burnt  up  by  the  oxygen 
contained  in  it. 

Mineral  Waters. — This  class  of  waters  has  been 
very  much  abused,  and  their  real  virtues,  in  the  majority 
of  cases,  do  not  depend  upon  their  constituents  so  much 
as  upon  the  psychologic  effect  and  the  large  amounts 
consumed. 

They  are  defined  as  waters  containing  some  abnormal 
constituent  or  those  that  contain  an  excess  of  a  normal 
constituent.  If  a  water  contains  arsenic,  bromin, 
sulphur,  or  any  ingredient  that  is  not  found  in  ordinary 
water,  it  can  be  placed  in  the  former  class;  but  if  it 
should  contain  an  excess  of  sodium  chlorid,  carbon  di- 
oxid,  substances  usually  found  in  the  average  water,  it 
belongs  to  the  latter  class.  They  are  classified  accord- 
ing to  their  predominating  constituents:  such  as 
bitter  waters,  containing  large  quantities  of  magnesium 
salts;  iron  or  chalybeate  waters,  containing  sulphate  or 
bicarbonate  of  iron;  sulphur  waters,  containing  sodium 
or  hydrogen  sulphid;  effervescent  waters,  containing 
carbon  dioxid. 

Distilled  Water. — This  is  a  water  obtained  by  boiling 
water,  rejecting  the  first  portion  of  the  distillate  (con- 
taining the  volatile  or  gaseous  impurities,  such  as  chlorin, 
ammonia,  and  hydrogen  sulphid),  and  preserving  the 


30  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

balance.     The  distillation  is  not  carried  to  completion, 
as  the  solid  impurities  must  be  left  behind. 

Water  of  crystallization  is  that  water  that  some 
substances  contain  and  to  which  they  owe  their  crystal- 
line form.  Copperas  is  FeSO4.ioH2O,  and  its  crystal- 
line form  is  due  to  the  10  molecules  of  water  of  crystal- 
lization it  contains.  If  it  were  exposed  to  air  or  heated, 
it  would  lose  its  crystalline  form  and  fall  to  a  powder. 
This  does  not  imply  that  all  chemicals  of  a  crystalline 
nature  owe  such  form  to  water  of  crystallization;  there 
are  numerous  substances  that  possess  a  crystalline 
form  without  containing  any  water  of  crystallization; 
for  instance,  boric,  salicylic,  and  tartaric  acids,  potas- 
sium bromid  and  iodid,  and  a  host  of  others.  Sub- 
stances that  absorb  moisture  from  the  air  and  become 
liquid  are  termed  deliquescent.  Those  that  give  up  their 
water  of  crystallization  upon  exposure  to  the  air  or 
by  heat,  and  become  pulverous,  are  termed  efflorescent, 
exsiccated,  dried,  or  anhydrous. 

HYDROGEN  PEROXID   OR  HYDROGEN  DIOXID 

Formula,  H2O9;  Molecular  weight,  44. 

This  substance  is  made  by  the  action  of  acids  upon 
certain  metallic  dioxids.  For  commercial  purposes 
barium  dioxid  and  sulphuric  acid  are  used,  and  the  H202 
is  filtered  off  of  the  insoluble  barium  sulphate. 


BaO2     +    H2SO4     =     HA     +     BaSO4 

Barium  dioxid.  Barium  sulphate. 


NITROGEN  31 

The  pure  substance  is  an  oily  liquid,  colorless,  soluble 
in  water,  alcohol,  and  ether.  A  solution  containing  50 
per  cent,  is  used  by  dentists  for  bleaching  the  teeth. 
The  official  solution  of  H202  is  Aqua  hydrogenii  dioxidi, 
contains  3  per  cent,  by  weight  of  H2O2,  and  yields  10 
volumes  of  oxygen.  As  it  readily  undergoes  decom- 
position, it  is  preserved  by  the  addition  of  small  amounts 
of  acetanilid. 

It  possesses  bleaching  and  antiseptic  properties. 
It  produces  an  effervescence  with  pus  and  other  organic 
matter  due  to  its  liberation  of  oxygen. 

A  delicate  test  for  its  presence  is  to  place  in  a  test- 
tube  a  few  drops  of  a  solution  of  potassium  dichromate, 
K2Cr2O7,  followed  by  a  few  drops  of  H2SO4  and  a  layer 
of  ether,  then  add  the  liquid  suspected  of  containing  the 
H2O2  or  a  dioxid  and  shake.  The  ethereal  layer  will 
turn  blue. 

NITROGEN 

Symbol,  N;  Atomic  weight,  14;  Molecular  weight,  28;  Density,  14; 
Valence,  i,  3,  5. 

Occurrence  in  Nature. — This  substance  is  found  un- 
combined  in  the  atmosphere,  of  which  it  constitutes 
four-fifths  by  volume.  It  also  occurs  in  the  animal 
and  some  of  the  vegetable  kingdom  and  in  mineral 
deposits,  as  either  potassium  or  sodium  nitrates. 

Preparation. — It  can  be  prepared  by  burning  phos- 
phorus under  a  bell-jar.  This  removes  the  oxygen 
from  the  air,  leaving  N.  It  is  also  prepared  chemically 


32  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

by  heating  a  solution  of  ammonium  chlorid  with  sodium 
nitrite. 

NH4C1    +    NaNO2     =     2N    +    NaCl    +     2H2O 

Ammonium  Sodium  Sodium  chlorid. 

chlorid.  nitrite. 

Properties. — It  is  a  colorless,  odorless,  and  tasteless 
gas,  which  under  cold  and  pressure  can  be  both  lique- 
fied and  solidified.  It  is  a  non-supporter  of  life  and 
combustion.  It  forms  an  essential  constituent  of  a 
large  number  of  animal  and  some  vegetable  substances, 
and  is  necessary  for  both  animal  and  plant  life.  Its 
use  in  the  air  is  to  dilute  the  oxygen.  In  body  building 
and  repair  the  nitrogen  of  protein  food  plays  a  very  im- 
portant part.  In  the  other  bodily  functions  nitrogen 
is  not  utilized. 

AMMONIA 

Formula,  NH3;  Molecular  weight,  17;  Density,  8.5. 

This  compound  is  constantly  being  formed  in  nature 
through  the  decomposition  of  organic  matter — chiefly 
animal,  such  as  flesh,  blood,  urine,  etc.  It  is  also  pro- 
duced during  the  process  of  destructive  distillation,  which 
is  heating  organic  matter  in  large  retorts  to  a  high  heat, 
without  the  access  of  air,  whereby  the  original  sub- 
stance is  destroyed  and  new  compounds  produced,  which 
are  collected  in  proper  receivers.  In  the  manufacture 
of  illuminating  gas,  coal  is  subjected  to  this  process, 
and  the  nitrogen  contained  in  the  coal  is  converted  into 
ammonia.  This  is  largely  the  source  of  the  ammonium 
compounds  of  commerce. 


AMMONIA  33 

Ammonia  is  always  obtained  when  any  ammonium 
compound  is  heated  with  the  caustic  alkalis  or  alkaline 
earths. 

NH4C1    +    KOH     =     NH3    +    KC1    +    H2O 

Ammonium         Potassium  Potassium 

chlorid.  hydroxid.  chlorid. 

(NHJ2SO4    +    Ca(OH)2     =     2NH3    +    CaSO4    +     2H2O 

Ammonium  Calcium  Calcium 

sulphate.  hydroxid.  sulphate. 

Properties. — It  is  a  colorless  gas  with  a  very  pungent 
odor,  an  alkaline  taste,  and  strong  alkaline  reaction. 
Like  other  gases,  it  can  be  liquefied  and  solidified.  It 
is  exceedingly  soluble  in  water,  which  at  ordinary  tem- 
perature dissolves  over  seven  hundred  times  its  own 
volume  of  the  gas.  Its  solution  in  water  produces 
ammonia-water,  of  which  two  strengths  are  official  in 
the  U.  S.  P.:  Aqua  ammonia,  containing  10  per  cent, 
by  weight  of  the  gas,  and  Aqua  ammonia  fortior,  contain- 
ing 28  per  cent.  Ammonia  combines  directly  with  acids, 
forming  the  ammonium  compounds,  in  which  nitrogen 
is  pentavalent,  or  has  a  valence  of  five. 

Toxicology. — Ammonia- water  is  a  caustic.  When  it 
is  taken  internally,  organic  acids  in  the  form  of  vinegar 
or  lemon- juice  should  be  administered,  followed  by 
demulcent  drinks  and  bland  oils.  No  emetic  need  be 
given,  as  the  neutralized  ammonium  compounds  pro- 
duced are  harmless.  If  the  caustic  effect  is  extensive 
there  is  danger  of  rupture,  produced  by  vomiting. 


34  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

COMPOUNDS   OF   NITROGEN   AND   OXYGEN 

Five  distinct  compounds  of  nitrogen  and  oxygen  are 
known.  Some  of  these  are  unimportant  to  those  fol- 
lowing the  medical  sciences,  but  are  of  great  industrial 
importance  in  the  chemical  world. 

Composition 
By  weight.  By  volume. 


Nitrogen  monoxid  ...    . 

.  N2O 

N 
28 

O 

16 

N 

2 

O 

I 

Nitric  oxid  or  dioxid 

N2O2  or  NO 

28 

•22 

2 

2 

Nitrogen  trioxid  

N2O, 

08 

48 

2 

3 

Nitrogen  tetroxid 

N2O4  or  NO2 

28 

64 

2 

4 

Nitrogen  oentoxid  .  . 

..N«O. 

28 

80 

2 

s 

NITROGEN  MONOXID   (also  known  as  Laughing-gas  and 
Nitrous  Oxid) 

Formula,  N2O;  Molecular  weight,  44;  Density,  22. 

Preparation. — Nitrogen  monoxid  is  made  by  heating 
ammonium  nitrate. 

NH4NO3     =     N2O    +     2H2O 

This  gas  is  largely  used  as  an  anesthetic  in  dentistry 
and  as  an  adjunct  in  general  surgical  anesthesia.  When 
made  for  such  purposes,  the  gas  is  purified  by  passing 
through  wash-bottles  containing  caustic  soda,  ferrous 
sulphate,  and  water  respectively. 

Properties. — It  is  a  colorless,  almost  odorless  gas, 
possessing  a  sweet  taste.  It  is  a  supporter  of  combus- 
tion almost  as  energetic  as  oxygen.  When  inhaled  it 
causes  exhilaration,  intoxication,  anesthesia,  and,  finally, 
asphyxia. 


NITRIC  ACID  35 

NITROGEN   DIOXID    OR  NITRIC   OXID 

Formula,  NO  or  N2O2;  Molecular  weight,  30;  Density,  15. 

Properties. — A  colorless  gas  which,  upon  exposure  to 
air  or  oxygen,  forms  a  poisonous  suffocating  gas  of  deep- 
red  color,  due  to  its  change  to  nitrogen  tetroxid  or  peroxid, 
NzO*.  It  is  prepared  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  upon 
metals  or  such  substances  that  reduce  the  HNO3. 

3Cu     -f    8HNO3     =     3Cu(NO3)2    +     2ND     +    4H2O 

Nitric  acid.  Copper  nitrate. 

Nitrogen  Trioxid  (N2O3).-— It  is  yet  doubtful  whether 
this  gas  exists.  When  arsenous  oxid  is  treated  with 
nitric  acid,  a  gas  of  the  above  composition  is  produced, 
but  it  is  regarded  as  a  mixture  of  equal  volumes  of  N2O2 
and  N2O4. 

Nitrogen  pentoxid  (N2O5)  is  a  solid  which,  upon  the 
addition  of  water,  forms  nitric  acid  and  is  of  scientific 
interest  only. 

NITRIC  ACID   (Acidum  Nitricum) 
Formula,  HNO3;  Molecular  weight,  63. 

This  acid  is  found,  in  nature,  combined  with  potas- 
sium, known  as  niter  or  saltpeter;  also  with  sodium, 
as  Chili  saltpeter.  These  compounds  are  produced 
by  the  action  of  certain  bacteria,  converting  the  am- 
monia, produced  by  the  decomposition  of  nitrogenous 
organic  matter,  into  nitrous  and,  ultimately,  into  nitric 
acid. 


36  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Preparation. — Usually  prepared  commercially  by  the 
action  of  sulphuric  acid  upon  potassium  or  sodium 

nitrate. 

2KNO3    -f    H2SO4     =     K2SO4    +     2HNO3 

Potassium  Potassium 

nitrate.  sulphate. 

Properties. — It  is  a  colorless,  corrosive  liquid;  when 
exposed  to  the  air  it  gives  off  vapors  of  a  peculiar  suffo- 
cating odor,  and  it  is  a  powerful  oxidizing  agent.  The 
official  acid  contains  68  per  cent,  by  weight  of  HNOs 
and  32  per  cent,  water.  The  dilute  nitric  acid  contains 
10  per  cent,  of  absolute  HNOs.  The  acid  is  wholly 
volatilized  by  heat,  stains  animal  matter  yellow,  and 
destroys  tissue.  lodin  forms  a  stain  somewhat  similar 
in  color,  which  can  be  told  from  stains  produced  by 
HNO3  by  becoming  lighter  in  color  or  entirely  disappear- 
ing when  treated  with  ammonia-water,  while  HNO3 
under  like  conditions  turns  an  orange  color.  The  acid 
is  monobasic;  that  is,  has  but  one  replaceable  hydrogen, 
forming  with  metals  or  bases  the  nitrates.  All  nitrates 
are  soluble  in  water  and,  consequently,  the  test  for  it  or 
its  salts  cannot  be  made  by  precipitation,  as  is  com- 
monly done  with  other  acids.  The  dilute  acid  is  made 
by  taking  10  parts  by  weight  of  the  strong  acid  and 
adding  to  it  58  parts  of  water.  All  the  official  dilute 
acids  contain  10  per  cent,  of  absolute  acid,  except  dilute 
acetic,  which  contains  6  per  cent.,  and  dilute  hydrocy- 
anic acid,  which  contains  2  per  cent. 

Tests. — In  a  test-tube  is  placed  some  strong  H2S04 


THE  AIR  OR  ATMOSPHERE  37 

and  to  this  (the  tube  being  held  in  a  slanting  position,  so 
as  not  to  mix  the  solutions)  a  solution  of  ferrous  sul- 
phate, FeS04,  is  added;  then  a  few  drops  of  the  sub- 
stance to  be  tested.  The  tube  is  gently  tapped,  so  as 
to  bring  the  suspected  liquid  in  contact  with  the  H2SO4, 
and  a  reddish-brown  zone  at  the  point  of  contact  of  the 
two  liquids  indicates  HNO3,  or  a  nitrate. 

THE  AIR  OR  ATMOSPHERE 

This  is  essentially  a  mixture  of  about  77  volumes  of 
nitrogen,  21  of  oxygen,  and  contains,  in  addition  to 
these,  from  .03  to  .04  part  of  carbon  dioxid,  from  0.5 
to  1.4  parts  of  aqueous  vapor,  with  traces  of  NH3, 
HN03,  and  HNO2. 

That  the  air  is  a  mixture  and  not  a  compound  can 
readily  be  shown  by  simple  experiments.  If  some 
phosphorus  is  burned  under  a  bell- jar  placed  over 
water,  it  will  burn  as  long  as  oxygen  is  present.  As 
the  oxygen  is  being  removed  the  water  will  rise  in  the 
bell-jar  and  will  show  approximately  the  volume  of 
oxygen  that  has  been  removed.  If  air  is  shaken  with 
lime-water,  Ca(OH)2,  the  latter  becomes  cloudy,  due 
to  the  CO2  of  the  atmosphere  forming  calcium  car- 
bonate, CaCO3,  with  it. 

It  is  claimed  that  the  air  envelops  the  earth,  ranging 
from  50  to  200  miles  in  height.  It  exerts  a  pressure 
upon  every  part  of  the  earth's  surface  of  about  15 
(accurately  14.7)  Ibs.  to  the  square  inch.  This  pres- 


38  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

sure  is  sufficient  to  maintain  a  column  of  mercury  30 
inches  high  or  water  32.4  feet. 

CARBON 

Symbol,  C.;  Atomic  weight,  12. 

Occurrence  in  Nature. — This  element  is  a  constituent 
of  all  organic  matter.  In  the  pure  state  it  exists  in  three 
allo tropic  modifications,  viz.,  in  the  crystalline  state,  as 
diamond  and  graphite,  and  in  the  amorphous  state  in 
various  forms,  as  charcoal,  bone-black,  lamp-black,  etc. 
It  is  found  as  calcium  carbonate  in  limestone,  oyster 
shell,  marble,  and  coral;  as  carbon  dioxid  in  the  atmo- 
sphere and  water.  The  diamond  is  the  purest  form  of 
carbon.  It  is  crystalline,  insoluble  in  all  substances, 
and  infusible,  but  if  sufficiently  heated  in  a  current  of 
pure  oxygen  it  will  burn.  It  is  the  hardest  natural 
substance  .known  and  is  used  for  drilling  and  cutting 
glass. 

Graphite,  black  lead!,  plumbago,  is  a  black,  metallic- 
looking  substance,  very  soft,  with  an  unctuous  or 
slippery  feel,  and  leaves  a  black  mark  when  drawn 
across  paper.  It  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of 
lead  pencils,  as  a  lubricant,  and  as  a  protective  agent, 
preventing  oxidation  of  surfaces  with  which  it  is  coated. 

Amorphous  carbon  exists  in  various  forms,  as  lamp- 
black, charcoal,  and  bone-black.  Charcoal  and  bone- 
black  are  obtained  as  residues  in  the  destructive  distilla- 
tion of  wood  and  bones.  They  are  of  an  intensely 


CARBON  DIOXID  39 

black  color,  porous,  and  have  the  property  of  absorbing 
large  amounts  of  gases.  They  are  also  deodorizing, 
decolorizing,  and  reducing  agents.  In  the  industries 
they  are  used  to  remove  organic  coloring-matter.  In 
the  manufacture  of  white  sugar,  the  colored  solution  is 
passed  through  long  filters  containing  bone-black. 

The  official  charcoals  are  Carbo  ligni,  Carbo  animalis, 
and  Carbo  animalis  purificatus. 

Carbon  and  Oxygen. — There  are  two  compounds  of 
carbon  and  oxygen:  carbon  monoxid  and  carbon  di- 
oxid. 

CARBON  DIOXID 

Formula,  CO2;  Molecular  weight,  44;  Density,  22. 

Also  called  carbonic  acid  gas  and  carbonic  anhydrid.1 
Preparation. — It  is  formed  when  carbon  is  burned 
with  a  full  supply  of  oxygen. 

C    +    2O    =    CO2 

It  is  also  made  by  the  process  of  calcination,  which  is 
heating  a  carbonate  to  deprive  it  of  CO2.  CO2  is  al- 
ways evolved  and  an  oxid  left. 

MgCO3    =    C02    +    MgO 

Magnesium  Magnesium 

carbonate.  oxid. 

1  An  acid  anhydrid  is  denned  as  an  acid  from  which  all  the  H  and  O, 
in  the  proportion  to  form  H2O,  has  been  removed.  Acid  anhydrids  con- 
tain no  hydrogen.  If  from  H2SO4,  H2O  is  removed,  SO3  remains,  and  is 
called  sulphuric  anhydrid.  H2CO3  is  carbonic  acid;  removing  H2O 
leaves  CO2,  or  carbonic  anhydrid. 


40  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Another  method  of  making  it  is  by  treating  any 
carbonate  with  any  acid. 

CaCO3     +     2HC1     =     CO3    +     CaCl2     +     H2O 
Calcium  Calcium 

carbonate.  chlorid. 

Carbon  dioxid  is  formed  through  decay  of  organic 
matter.  It  is  produced  by  the  respiration;  the  inhaled 
air  absorbed  in  the  lungs  by  the  blood  combines  with 
the  carbon  of  the  system,  forming  CO2.  Its  presence 
can  be  shown  by  blowing  into  lime-water.  It  produces 
with  the  latter  a  cloudiness,  due  to  the  formation  of 
calcium  carbonate.  The  exhaled  air  contains  4  per  cent, 
by  volume  of  CC>2,  which  is  one  hundred  times  more 
than  is  contained  in  fresh  air.  CO2  is  contained  in  air 
to  the  extent  of  about  4  volumes  in  10,000.  It  is  con- 
tained in  spring-waters,  but  some  of  it  escapes  as  it  rises 
to  the  surface.  C02  is  always  formed  during  the  process 
of  fermentation. 

Properties. — It  is  a  colorless  gas,  having  a  slight  acid 
taste  with  little  odor.  Under  cold  and  pressure  it  can 
be  liquefied  and  solidified.  The  liquid  C02  is  largely 
used  to  make  the  so-called  "soda  water"  and  also  for 
freezing  specimens  in  making  anatomic  and  pathologic 
sections.  The  solid  CO2  is  known  as  "C02  snow"  and 
is  used  as  a  cauterizing  agent.  The  gas  is  about  one 
and  a  half  times  heavier  than  air.  It  is  a  non-supportor 
of  life  and  combustion,  10  per  cent,  being  sufficient  to 
extinguish  flame.  One  volume  of  cold  water  dissolves 


CARBON  DIOXID  41 

its  own  volume  of  CO2.  Under  pressure  the  solubility 
is  increased.  Each  increase  of  one  atmosphere  dis- 
solves one  volume  more  of  CO2.  It  is  non-poisonous 
by  the  stomach,  acting  as  a  sedative  to  the  mucous 
membrane.  When  inhaled  it  produces  spasm  of  the 
glottis,  and  causes  death  by  cutting  off  the  supply  of 
O  and  preventing  proper  exchange  between  the  CO2 
of  the  blood  and  the  O  of  the  air.  It  is  also  used  to 
extinguish  flame;  being  heavier  than  air,  it  acts  as  a 
blanket. 

According  to  Andral  and  Gavarret,  the  average  amount 
of  CO2  exhaled  per  hour  by  an  adult  is  nearly  0.8  cubic 
foot.  The  air  space  for  healthy  individuals  should  not 
be  less  than  400  cubic  feet,  but  for  the  sick  this  should 
be  increased  two  or  three  times.  Unless  some  provision 
was  made  by  nature  to  remove  the  CO2  that  is  con- 
stantly being  produced,  the  amount  contained  in  the 
air  would  be  greatly  increased.  Plants  absorb  it  as 
food,  retaining  the  C  and  liberating  the  O,  thus  keeping 
the  constituents  of  the  air  in  equilibrium. 

Carbonic  Acid  (H2CO3). — When  CO2  is  passed  into 
water  it  combines  with  it,  forming  H2COs. 

C02    +    H20    =    H2C03 

This  has  been  proved  to  be  an  acid,  possessing  both 
chemical  and  theoretic  properties  of  a  true  acid.  It  is, 
however,  a  very  weak  acid,  and  forms  two  classes  of 
salts,  the  normal  and  acid  carbonates. 


42  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Carbonates. — These  may  be  considered  as  carbonic 
acid  in  which  one  or  both  of  its  hydrogens  have  been 
replaced  by  metals  or  bases. 

HHCOs  (another  way  of  showing  the  formula  of 
acids),  replacing  one  of  the  hydrogens  by  Na,  would 
produce  NaHCO3;  bicarbonate  or  acid  carbonate  of 
sodium  replacing  both  the  hydrogens,  forming  Na,  Na- 
CO3  (sodium  carbonate),  or  Na2CO3. 

Test  for  Carbonates. — Any  carbonate  or  bicarbonate 
treated  with  an  acid  produces  an  effervescence  of  CO2, 
which,  when  passed  into  lime-water,  produces  a  tur- 
bidity of  CaCO3. 

Solution  of  barium  chlorid  added  to  a  solution  of  a  car- 
bonate produces  a  white  precipitate  of  barium  carbon- 
ate, BaC03,  wholly  soluble,  with  effervescence,  in  HC1. 

Carbon  Monoxid,  Carbonic  Oxid  (Formula,  CO; 
Molecular  Weight,  28;  Density,  14). — Carbon,  as  a 
general  rule,  has  a  valence  of  4,  but  in  carbon  monoxid 
the  valence  is  2. 

Properties. — It  is  a  colorless,  odorless,  tasteless  gas, 
a  non-supporter  of  life  and  combustion,  and  burns  with 
a  blue  flame,  forming  CO2.  Almost  insoluble  in  water. 
Poisonous  when  inhaled,  forming  with  the  blood  carbon 
monoxid  hemoglobin.  Blood  containing  carbon  monoxid 
hemoglobin  is  bright  red  and,  when  examined  with  the 
spectroscope,  presents  bands  characteristic  to  oxy- 
hemoglobin,  but  which  can  be  distinguished  from  the 
latter  by  not  being  changed  by  reducing  agents. 


CARBON  DIOXID  43 

Toxicology— In.  poisoning  by  CO,  remove  any  gas 
present  in  the  lungs  by  inhalations  of  O  or  by  artificial 
respiration.  If  this  fails,  transfusion  of  blood  may  be 
resorted  to.  Stimulants  and  iron  may  also  be  given. 

Preparation. — CO  is  formed  when  C02  is  passed  over 
heated  carbon.  The  blue  flame  playing  around  a  coal 
fire  is  the  CO  burning. 

C02    +    c    -    2CO 

It  is  also  prepared  by  the  action  of  strong  H2S04 
upon  oxalic  acid. 

H2C2O4    +    (H2SOJ     =     CO    -|-    CO2    +    H2O 

Oxalic  acid. 

The  sulphuric  acid,  in  the  above  reaction,  being  a  power- 
ful dehydrating  agent,  removes  the  elements  of  water, 
H  and  0,  from  the  oxalic  acid. 

The  compounds  of  C  and  H  are  quite  numerous; 
they  will  be  considered  under  Organic  Chemistry. 

Cyanogen  (Formula,  (CN)2;  Molecular  Weight,  52; 
Density,  26). — This  is  a  colorless,  poisonous  gas,  burn- 
ing with  a  peach-colored  flame,  producing  CO2  and 
liberating  N. 

Preparation. — It  is  made  by  heating  mercury  cyanid. 

2Hg(CN)2     =     2Hg    +     2(CN)2 
Mercury  cyanid. 

Hydrocyanic  Acid,  Prussic  Acid  (Formula,  HCN; 
Molecular  Weight  27). — This  acid  does  not  exist  in 
nature  in  the  free  condition,  but  is  produced  from  such 


44  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

substances  as  wild  cherry  bark,  bitter  almonds,  and 
peach  kernels,  when  acted  upon  by  water.  In  reality, 
this  is  due  to  the  glucosid,  amygdalin,  contained  in 
them,  being  acted  upon  by  the  ferment,  emulsin.  The 
pure  acid  is  never  found  in  commerce.  It  is  a  color- 
less liquid  of  a  characteristic  penetrating  odor,  resem- 
bling bitter  almonds,  readily  soluble  in  water. 

It  is  made  commercially  by  the  interaction  between 
H2SO4  and  potassium  ferrocyanid.  The  dilute  acid, 
as  found  in  pharmacy,  Acidum  hydrocyanicum  dilutum, 
contains  2  per  cent,  by  weight  of  absolute  HCN;  it 
readily  deteriorates  within  a  short  time  and,  on  this 
account,  should  be  made  extemporaneously  by  treating 
silver  cyanid  with  HC1. 


AgCN    +    HCl     =     HCN    +    AgCl 

Silver  cyanid.  Silver  chlorid. 


Toxicology. — As  poisoning  by  HCN  and  the  soluble 
cyanids  is  so  rapid  in  its  effect,  very  little  can  be  done, 
but  if  the  patient  survives  an  hour  there  is  some  hope. 
The  treatment  consists  of  cold  affusions,  NHs,  galvan- 
ism, stimulants,  and  atropin.  Smith's  antidote,  com- 
posed of  ferrous  and  ferric  salts  in  the  presence  of  al- 
kaline carbonates,  may  be  of  service,  forming  the  in- 
soluble Prussian  blue,  followed  by  emetics.  H2O2  has 
also  been  proposed. 

Uses. — Phthisis,  cough,  asthma,  and  gastralgia.  Dose, 
i  to  3  minims,  well  diluted. 


BORON  45 

SILICON 

Symbol,  Si;  Atomic  weight,  28;  Valence,  4. 

This  element  is  widely  distributed  in  nature  in  the 
form  of  silica,  Si02,  such  as  sand,  quartz,  rock  crystal, 
and  flint,  almost  in  pure  form.  As  silicates,  combined 
with  various  metals,  as  Mg,  Ca,  and  K,  it  constitutes 
the  rocks  of  which  the  earth's  crust  is  so  largely  com- 
posed. It  is  also  found  in  certain  plants  and  feathers, 
to  which  it  gives  strength. 

Liquid  glass  is  a  solution  of  sodium  silicate,  which  is 
used  for  fixing  surgical  dressings.  Glass  is  a  mixture  of 
various  silicates.  When  silica  is  highly  heated  it  fuses, 
and  this  fused  silicaware  can  be  heated  to  redness  and 
thrust  into  ice- water  without  breaking,  and  is  largely 
employed  for  chemical  apparatus. 

BORON 

Symbol,  B;  Atomic  weight,  u;  Valence,  3. 

This  element  occurs  principally  in  combination  as 
boric  acid,  H3B03,  and  borax,  Na2B407.ioH2O. 

Boric  Acid  (HsBOs). — This  is  a  white  crystalline  sub- 
stance found  naturally  in  pools  of  water,  which  collect 
the  acid  from  steam  jets  issuing  from  earth  fissures  and 
passing  through  it.  It  is  obtained  by  concentration  of 
the  solution. 

Properties. — Soluble  in  18  parts  of  H20,  about  16  parts 
of  alcohol,  and  5  parts  of  glycerin.  It  is  antiseptic. 
When  heated  to  100°  C.  (212°  F.)  it  loses  water  and  is 


46  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

converted  into  metaboric  acid;  heated  to  160°  C.  (320°  F.) 
it  forms  a  glass-like  mass  of  tetraboric  acid,  the  acid 
corresponding  to  borax.  Boric  acid  is  obtained  by 
adding  HC1  to  a  hot  saturated  solution  of  borax. 

NajjBA    +     2HC1     +     SH2O     =     4H3BO4     +     2NaCl 

Boric  acid  is  a  weak  acid,  and  the  alkaline  borates 
show  strong  alkaline  reaction  to  litmus.  When  alcohol 
is  added  to  H3BO3  and  ignited,  it  burns  with  a  charac- 
teristic green  flame. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Boric  acid  is  an  anti- 
septic. It  is  seldom  used  internally,  but  when  so  used, 
may  be  given  in  doses  of  from  5  to  30  gr. 

It  is  used  principally  externally  as  an  antiseptic 
wash,  or  in  the  several  official  preparations  containing 
it,  viz.,  Glycerite  of  boroglycerite,  which  is  made  by  com- 
bining in  chemical  proportion  glycerin  and  boric  acid 
and  adding  an  equal  weight  of  glycerin.  Boric  acid 
ointment,  containing  10  per  cent,  of  the  acid  in  a  mix- 
ture of  petrolatum  and  paraffin.  It  is  also  contained  in 
the  Liqwr  antisepticus  and  Cataplasma  kaolini,  official 
preparations  intended  to  replace  the  largely  advertised 
articles  on  the  market. 

Ortho-,  Meta-,  and  Pyro-acids. — Ortho-acid. — From 
the  Greek  orthos,  meaning  straight,  normal,  or  regular. 
The  regular  or  common  acids  are  also  termed  "ortho- 
acids." 

Meta-acids. — A  meta-acid  is  regarded  as  one  molecule 


SULPHUR  47 

of  an  ortho-acid  from  which  one  molecule  of  water  has 
been  removed: 

H3BO3        —        H2O        =        HBO2 

Normal  or  Metabolic 

orthoboric  acid.  acid. 

Pyro-acids. — If  two  molecules  of  an  ortho-acid  are 
taken  and  one  molecule  of  water  removed,  a  pyro-acid 
will  be  produced: 

2(H2S04)  or  (H4S208)    —    H20     =     H2S2O7 

Pyrosulphuric  acid. 

Borax  (Na2B407.ioH20). — This  sodium  salt  of  boron 
is  found  in  Clear  Lake,  Nevada.  As  stated  under  Boric 
Acid,  it  has  an  alkaline  reaction,  soluble  in  water  and 
glycerin,  and,  unlike  boric  acid,  is  insoluble  in  alcohol. 
Its  uses  and  properties  are  similar  to  those  of  boric 
acid. 

SULPHUR 

Symbol,  S;  Atomic  weight,  32;  Valence,  2,  4,  6. 

This  element  occurs  in  the  free  state  as  a  product  of 
past  volcanic  action  in  Sicily,  Iceland,  and  California. 
Large  quantities  are  now  obtained  in  Louisiana,  Utah, 
California,  and  Nevada.  In  combination  it  is  found 
widely  diffused  in  the  form  of  sulphates  (gypsum, 
CaSO4.2H20;  Epsom  salts,  MgS04,  7H20)  and  sulphids 
(iron  pyrites,  FeS2;  galena,  PbS;  cinnabar,  HgS,  etc.). 
It  is  also  found  in  combination  with  organic  matter  in 
the  various  proteins,  garlic,  horse-radish,  hair,  and  in 


48  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

algae.  During  decomposition  of  these  latter  substances 
it  is  evolved  as  H2S.  As  H2S  it  is  found  as  a  constituent 
of  some  waters. 

Properties. — It  is  a  yellow,  brittle  solid,  odorless  and 
tasteless;  insoluble  in  water;  soluble  in  benzene,  benzole, 
chloroform,  ether,  carbon  disulphid,  oil  of  turpentine, 
and  the  fatty  oils ;  and  melts  at  1 1 5°  C.  (239°  F.) .  When 
melted  sulphur  is  poured  into  water  it  forms  a  plastic 
mass,  one  of  the  allotropic  forms  of  sulphur,  which  soon 
changes  into  the  regular  form  again. 

Sulphur  is  found  in  commerce  in  a  variety  of  forms: 
Brimstone,  sublimed  sulphur,  washed  sulphur,  and  pre- 
cipitated sulphur. 

The  crude  sulphur  when  heated  is  vaporized,  and 
when  passed  into  large  cooled  chambers  condenses, 
forming  the  sublimed  or  flowers  of  sulphur.  After  a 
time,  the  condensing  chambers  becoming  warm,  the 
sulphur  liquefies  and  is  run  into  molds,  forming  brim- 
stone or  roll  sulphur.  (See  page  no.) 

Washed  sulphur,  Sulphur  lotum,  is  sublimed  sulphur 
that  has  been  treated  with  dilute  ammonia-water  to 
remove  any  sulphurous  acid,  sulphuric  acid,  and  arsenic 
that  may  be  present.  This  is  the  kind  that  should  be 
used  when  intended  for  internal  use. 

Precipitated  sulphur  (milk  of  sulphur,  lac  sulphur) 
is  sulphur,  lime,  and  water  boiled  together.  To  the  deep 
orange  solution  which  results  HC1  is  added,  and  the  pre- 
cipitated sulphur  is  washed  with  water  and  dried.  It 


SULPHUR  49 

is  of  a  lighter  color  than  ordinary  sulphur,  and  when 
first  precipitated  is  milk  white;  hence  its  name. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses.  —  It  is  alterative, 
laxative,  diaphoretic,  resolvent,  and  antiparasitic.  It 
passes  out  of  the  system  largely  unchanged;  the  small 
part  that  had  been  combined,  as  sulphids  or  H2S.  It 
enters  into  the  preparation  of  sulphur  ointment,  15  per 
cent,  of  washed  sulphur  rubbed  up  with  benzoinated 
lard.  Compound  licorice  powder  contains  8  per  cent,  of 
it. 

Sulphur  Dioxid  (Formula,  SO2;  Molecular  Weight,  64; 
Density,  32).  —  This  is  a  colorless  gas,  with  a  disagree- 
able, suffocating  odor,  and,  under  cold  and  pressure,  can 
be  both  liquefied  and  solidified.  Very  soluble  in  water, 
forming  sulphurous  acid.  It  is  a  disinfectant,  reduc- 
ing and  bleaching  agent. 

Preparation.  —  It  is  made  whenever  sulphur  or  mate- 
rials containing  it  are  burned  in  presence  of  air. 

S    +    20    =    SO2 
Also  by  the  action  of  dilute  acids  upon  sulphites: 


Na2SO3    +     2HC1     =     SO2    +     sNaCl    +    H2O 

Sodium  sulphite. 

This  latter  reaction  is  also  used  as  a  test  for  sulphites. 


ACIDS  OF  SULPHUR 

Hydrogen  Sulphid,  Sulphuretted  Hydrogen  (Formula, 
H2S;  Molecular  Weight,  34;  Density,  17).—  This  gas  is 

4 


50  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

produced  by  decomposition  of  organic  matter  contain- 
ing sulphur,  and  also  when  metallic  sulphids  are  acted 
upon  by  dilute  acids. 

FeS    +    H2SO4     =     H2S    +    FeSO4 

Iron  sulphid.  Iron  sulphate. 

It  is  a  colorless,  poisonous  gas,  with  an  odor  resembling 
rotten  eggs,  soluble  in  water,  and  is  largely  used  as  a 
laboratory  agent,  producing  a  series  of  sulphids  of  various 
colors. 

Sulphurous  Acid  (Formula,  H2SO3;  Molecular  Weight, 
82). — This  acid  is  not  known  in  the  pure  state,  but  ex- 
ists only  in  aqueous  solution,  the  official,  which  is  made 
by  saturating  water  with  S02,  containing  6  per  cent,  of 

S02  by  weight: 

SO2    +    H2O    =    H2SO3 

It  forms  two  classes  of  salts,  the  sulphites  and  the  acid 
sulphites. 

Sulphuric  Acid  (Formula,  H2SO4;  Molecular  Weight, 
98). — This  acid  is  made  by  passing  SO2,  HNO3,  steam, 
and  air  into  large  leaden  chambers.  (The  various  steps 
of  the  equation  will  be  omitted.) 

It  is  a  heavy,  corrosive  liquid;  specific  gravity,  1.835 
(nearly  twice  that  of  water);  colorless,  odorless,  and 
contains  92.5  per  cent,  by  weight  of  the  absolute  acid. 
The  dilute  acid  contains  10  per  cent.  It  has  great 
affinity  for  water  and  is  a  powerful  dehydrating  agent. 
When  it  comes  in  contact  with  organic  matter  it  removes 
the  elements  of  water  (the  H  and  O)  and  leaves  a  black 


SULPHUR  51 

residue  of  carbon.  It  is  commonly  called  "oil  of  vitriol." 
When  added  to  water  it  evolves  great  heat.  In  mixing 
it  with  water,  the  acid  must  be  added  to  the  water,  and 
not  in  the  reverse  order.  Great  care  should  be  exercised 
in  mixing  them!  Sulphuric  acid  produces  white  eschars 
upon  tissue  with  which  it  has  been  in  contact,  the 
edges  of  which  may  be  dark  from  its  dehydrating  prop- 
erty. 

Toxicology. — When  taken  internally,  avoid  carbon- 
ates, if  possible.  Give  magnesia,  lime,  eggs,  milk,  and 
bland  oils  to  allay  the  irritation. 

Tests  for  Sulphuric  Acid  and  Sulphates. — H2S04  and 
the  soluble  sulphates  produce  with  solution  of  barium 
chlorid,  BaCl2,  a  white  precipitate  of  barium  sulphate, 
BaS04,  insoluble  in  HC1.  The  pure  acid  will  char 
paper  or  the  carbohydrates. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Escharotic;  also  pro- 
motes alkaline  secretions;  tonic  and  astringent.  Used 
in  diarrhea,  hemorrhages,  night-sweats,  and  lead-colic. 
Dose,  2  to  5  minims,  well  diluted. 

Three  sulphuric  acids  are  official:  Acidum  sulphuri- 
cum,  Acidum  sulphuricum  dilutum,  and  Acidum  sulphuri- 
cum  aromaticum,  which  contains  20  per  cent,  of  H2SO4 
and  is  known  also  as  elixir  vitriol. 

Pyrosulphuric  Acid  (1128207),  Fuming  or  Nordhausen's 
Sulphuric  Acid. — Made  by  passing  S03  into  H2SO4.  It 
is  a  thick  liquid,  very  corrosive,  and  gives  off  dense 
fumes  of  SO3  when  exposed  to  air. 


52  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Thiosulphuric  Acid  (H2S203).— This  acid  does  not 
exist,  but  its  salts  do. 

Sodium  thiosulphate,  Na2S2O3,  improperly  called  "hy- 
posulphite of  soda/'  is  largely  used  in  commerce  in 
paper  making.  In  photography  it  is  used  to  remove 
the  silver  salts  that  have  not  been  acted  upon.  It  is 
an  excellent  antidote  for  iodin-poisoning.  When  treated 
with  HC1  it  behaves  like  the  sulphites,  but  produces, 
in  addition,  a  precipitation  of  sulphur,  and  this  is  used 
as  a  means  of  differentiation  between  the  two. 

Na2S,O3    +     2HC1     =     SO2    +    S    +     aNaCl    +    H,O 

Sodium 
thiosulphate. 

Carbon  Disulphid  (Formula,  CS2;  Molecular  Weight, 
76). — This  is  a  heavy,  colorless  liquid  of  a  very  offensive 
odor,  highly  refractive,  very  volatile,  and  inflammable. 
It  is  made  by  passing  the  vapors  of  S  over  heated  C. 
It  is  used  as  a  solvent  for  fats,  rubber,  sulphur,  iodin, 
phosphorus,  and  some  alkaloids.  Upon  a  large  scale 
it  is  used  as  an  insecticide. 

PHOSPHORUS 

Symbol,  P;  Atomic  weight,  31;  Molecular  weight,  124;  Valence,  3,  5. 

This  element  is  found  in  nature  chiefly  as  the  phos- 
phates of  calcium,  iron,  and  aluminum.  It  is  found  in 
such  mineral  combinations  in  small  quantities  in  all 
soils  and  is  essential  for  plant  life.  It  enters  the  animal 
economy  through  the  food  taken,  and  is  found  either 


PHOSPHORUS  53 

in  organic  combination  or  in  the  bones  in  the  form  of 
calcium  and  magnesium  phosphates.  It  is  also  found 
in  the  urine. 

The  element  is  obtained  from  its  mineral  salts  by 
dissolving  them  in  strong  H2S04;  the  resultant  com- 
pound is  heated,  then  mixed  with  sand  and  coke,  and 
the  distilled  phosphorus  collected  under  water. 

Properties. — It  occurs  as  a  translucent,  slightly  yellow 
solid,  and  melts  under  water  at  44°  C.  (m°  F.).  It  has 
great  affinity  for  O,  taking  fire  when  exposed  to  air.  It 
is  luminous  in  the  dark;  insoluble  in  H^O;  slightly  sol- 
uble in  alcohol,  fats,  and  oil;  and  very  soluble  in  chloro- 
form and  €82.  It  combines  readily  with  chlorin,  bromin, 
iodin,  sulphur,  and  metals,  forming  with  the  latter 
phosphids.  Phosphorus  exists  in  an  allotropic  modi- 
fication, made  by  exposing  common  or  yellow  phos- 
phorus to  260°  C.  in  an  atmosphere  of  inert  gases,  as 
CO2,  N,  or  H,  and  in  this  form  is  known  as  red  phos- 
phorus, the  properties  of  which  are  widely  different 
from  those  of  the  common  variety,  being  non-poisonous, 
practically  insoluble  in  all  liquids,  and  non-luminous. 
Phosphorus  was  principally  used  in  the  making  of 
matches,  which  consisted  of  dipping  wooden  splints  into 
melted  sulphur,  paraffin,  and  then  into  a  paste  of  glue 
and  phosphorus,  to  which  some  oxidizing  agent  had 
been  added.  As  the  manufacture  of  matches  by  this 
method  produced  maxillary  necrosis  in  those  working 
with  it,  laws  have  been  enacted  against  its  use.  In 


54  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

the  so-called  "safety  match"  red  phosphorus  is  used. 
It  is  contained  upon  the  surface  upon  which  the  match 
is  to  be  rubbed,  combined  with  antimony  pentasulphid. 
The  match  proper  contains  antimony  trisulphid,  red 
lead,  and  potassium  chlorate  and  dichromate.  Phos- 
phorus in  the  elementary  state  is  used  in  several  phar- 
maceutic  preparations,  such  as  pills,  elixir,  spirits,  and 
phosphorated  oil.  In  domestic  use  it  enters  the  home 
in  the  form  of  the  various  "rat  pastes." 

Toxicology. —  Never  give  oil  or  fats,  as  phosphorus  is 
soluble  in  them  and  would  only  hasten  assimilation. 
Oil  of  turpentine  (this  differs  chemically  from  the  oil 
and  fats)  has  been  used,  its  action  depending  upon  the 
oxidation  of  the  phosphorus  to  phosphoric  acid.  Potas- 
sium permanganate  in  y^  per  cent,  solution  has  been 
successfully  used;  it  converts  the  phosphorus  into 
H3PO4.  Copper  sulphate,  which  forms  the  insoluble 
copper  phosphid  or  may  even  coat  the  phosphorus  with 
metallic  copper,  can  also  be  given  in  5-gr.  doses.  In  all 
these  cases  the  stomach-pump  or  emetics  must  be  used  to 
eliminate  the  poison  from  the  system  as  soon  as  possible. 

Phosphin,  Phosphoretted  Hydrogen  (Formula,  PH3; 
Molecular  Weight,  34). — This  is  a  colorless,  ill-smelling 
gas,  analogous  in  form  to  NH3,  and  is  produced  when- 
ever phosphorus  is  boiled  with  a  solution  of  a  caustic 
alkali  or  alkaline  earth.  The  gas  thus  obtained  is  con- 
taminated with  another  gas,  which  is  spontaneously  in- 
flammable, and  this  property  is  frequently  ascribed  to 


ACIDS  OF  PHOSPHORUS  55 

the  former.  Pure  PHs,  however,  does  not  inflame  at 
ordinary  temperature,  though  it  does  when  gently 
heated. 

3KOH    +     4P     +     3H30     =     PH3    +     3KPH2O2 

Potassium 
hypophosphite. 

When  added  to  acids  it  produces  the  phosphonium 
compounds,  which  are  analogous  to  the  ammonium 
compounds. 

ACIDS  OF  PHOSPHORUS 

Phosphoric,  phosphorous,  hypophosphorous,  meta- 
phosphoric,  and  pyrophosphoric  acids. 

In  considering  the  acids  on  page  14  it  was  stated 
that,  theoretically  considered,  any  acid  is  divisible  into 
replaceable  hydrogen  and  acid  radicle.  The  replace- 
able hydrogen  is  that  hydrogen  that  can  be  replaced  by 
a  metal  or  base,  and  while  all  acids  contain  hydrogen, 
not  all  the  hydrogen  in  some  acids  is  capable  of  replace- 
ment. We  will  find  that  some  of  the  acids  of  phos- 
phorus show  this  exception. 

Hypophosphorous  Acid  (Formula,  HPH2O2  or  H3PO2; 
Molecular  Weight,  66). — This  acid  contains,  as  will  be 
seen  from  the  second  formula,  three  hydrogens,  but 
only  one  of  these  can  be  replaced.  The  first  formula  is 

the  type  formula,  showing  the  number  of  replaceable 

/ 

hydrogens.  The  acid  radicle  is  (PH2O2)  with  a  valence 
of  one,  and  forms  salts  as  follows: 

Na(PH2O2)  Ca(PHA)2 

Sodium  hypophosphite.  Calcium  hypophosphite. 


$6  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

The  acid  is  made  by  decomposing  a  solution  of  cal- 
cium hypophosphite  with  oxalic  acid,  or  by  treating 
potassium  hypophosphite  with  tartaric  acid. 

Ca(PH2O2)2    +    H2C2O4     =     2HPH2O2    +     CaC2O4 

Oxalic  acid.  Calcium  oxalate. 

It  is  official  in  two  strengths,  Acidum  hy  po  phosphor  o- 
sum,  30  per  cent.,  and  Acidum  hypophosphorosum  dilu- 
tum,  10  per  cent.  The  acid  possesses  deoxidizing  proper- 
ties, changing  substances  brought  in  contact  with  it 
into  lower  forms. 

Tests. — The  hypophosphites  produce,  with  solution  of 
silver  nitrate,  AgN03,  at  first,  a  white  precipitate,  which 
becomes  brown  and  finally  black,  due  to  reduction  of  the 
silver  to  the  metallic  state. 

If  to  a  solution  of  a  hypophosphite,  acidified  with 
HC1,  a  solution  of  mercuric  chlorid  is  added,  a  white 
precipitate  of  mercurous  chlorid  (calomel)  is  formed, 
which,  upon  the  addition  of  more  hypophosphite,  will 
be  further  reduced  to  mercury. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Hypophosphorous 
acid  and  the  hypophosphites  are  tonic  and  supposedly 
reconstructive.  The  dose  of  dilute  acid  is  10  to  60  min- 
ims. The  acid  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  syrup  of 
ferrous  iodid  as  a  preserving  agent,  on  account  of  its 
deoxidizing  property. 

Phosphorous  Acid  (H2(PHO3)  or  H3P03).— As  can  be 
seen  from  the  formula,  this  is  a  dibasic  acid.  It  pos- 


ACIDS  OF  PHOSPHORUS  57 

sesses  strong  deoxidizing  properties.  The  acid  and  its 
compounds  are  of  little  medical  importance. 

Phosphoric  Acid  (Formula,  H3PO4;  Molecular  Weight, 
98). — This  is  the  most  important  of  the  acids  of  phos- 
phorus. It  is  found  in  nature  as  phosphates  in  various 

//     /?/ 

rocks,  principally  as  calcium  phosphate,  Ca3(P04)2. 
It  is  found  in  the  animal  economy  as  magnesium  and 
calcium  in  the  bones,  in  the  blood  as  Na2HP04,  and  in 
the  urine  as  NaH2PO4. 

This  acid  is  generally  made  by  the  action  of  dilute 
HNOa  upon  phosphorus.  The  official  acid  exists  in  two 
strengths:  Acidum  phosphoricum,  containing  85  per 
cent,  by  weight  of  H3P04,  and  Acidum  phosphoricum 
dilutum,  containing  10  per  cent. 

It  forms  three  classes  of  salts:  the  first,  in  which  but 
one  of  its  replaceable  H  has  been  substituted  by  a 
metal,  e.  g.,  NaH2PO4;  the  second,  wherein  two  of  the 
H  have  been  replaced,  e.  g.,  Na2HPO4,  this  latter  salt 
being  the  sodium  phosphate  of  pharmacy  and  com- 
merce; and  the  last  class,  in  which  all  the  H  is  replaced, 
e.  g.,  Na3PO4. 

Tests. — H3PO4  neutralized  with  ammonia-water, 
(NH4OH),  or  a  phosphate  added  to  a  solution  of  silver 
nitrate,  produces  a  yellow  precipitate,  wholly  soluble  in 
HN03  and  NH4OH. 

With  magnesium  mixture,  consisting  of  MgS04, 
NH4C1,  and  NH4OH,  a  granular  white  precipitate  of 
MgNH4PO4  is  produced. 


58  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Phosphoric  acid  is 
tonic,  alterative,  and  refrigerant.  It  is  used  in  dys- 
pepsia, hysteria,  diabetes,  caries  of  the  bones,  night- 
sweats,  catarrhal  affections,  jaundice,  and  melancholia. 
Dose:  strong  acid,  2  to  5  minims;  dilute,  5  to  30  min- 
ims, both  well  diluted. 

Pyrophosphoric  Acid.— Under  Boric  Acid  (see  p.  46) 
pyro-  and  meta-acids  were  defined.  This  acid  is  not  of 
great  importance,  but  its  sodium  salt  is  extensively  used 
in  pharmacy  and  the  arts.  Pyrophosphates  when 
added  to  solutions  of  silver  nitrate  produce  a  white 
precipitate  soluble  in  NH4OH,  not  reprecipitated  by 
HN03. 

Metaphosphoric  acid  (HPO3),  also  called  glacial 
phosphoric  acid,  because  it  exists  in  glass-like  masses. 
It  differs  from  phosphoric  and  pyrophosphoric  acids 
by  coagulating  albumin  and  acting  like  a  poison,  while 
the  others  are  practically  harmless. 

HALOGENS 

These  consist  of  the  four  elements — chlorin,  iodin, 
bromin,  and  fluorin — and  have  properties  very  much 
in  common.  They  are  derived  from  compounds  found 
in  sea-water;  hence  the  name  "halogen,"  signifying  a 
generator  of  salt.  They  all  have  the  valence  of  i,  but 
also  exist,  in  some  of  their  compounds,  with  valencies  of 
3,  5,  and  7.  They  all  combine  with  hydrogen,  produc- 
ing binary  acids,  which  are  colorless  gases  soluble  in 


CHLORIN  59 

water,  and  in  this  form  they  exist  in  commerce.  They 
combine  directly  with  most  metals,  forming  chlorids, 
iodids,  bromids,  and  fluorids.  Chlorin  and  fluorin  are 
gases.  lodin  is  a  solid.  Bromin  is  a  liquid  at  ordinary 
temperature.  In  the  gaseous  condition  each  possesses 
a  distinctive  color,  has  a  disagreeable  and  irritating 
odor,  and  is  a  powerful  disinfectant. 

CHLORIN 

Symbol,  Cl;  Atomic  weight,  35. 

Occurrence  in  Nature.  —  Found  largely  as  sodium 
chlorid,  NaCl,  as  common  salt,  rock  salt;  in  salt  lakes, 
seas,  and  oceans;  also  as  the  chlorids  of  potassium,  mag- 
nesium, and  calcium. 

Preparation.  —  Made  commonly  by  heating  black  oxid 
of  manganese  with  HC1  or  H2SO4: 


MnO2     +     4HC1     =     MnCl2     +     2C1     +     2H,O    or 

Manganese  Manganese 

dioxid.  chlorid. 

MnO2  H-  2NaCl  +  2H2SO4  =   2C1  +  MnSO4  +  Na2SO4  +  2H20 

Manganese 
sulphate. 

Chlorin  is  also  produced  by  the  action  of  HC1  or  H2SO4 
upon  the  so-called  "  chlorid  of  lime/'  or  bleaching 
powder,  which  is  a  mixture  of  CaCl2  and  Ca(ClO)2. 

CaCla.Ca(ClO)2    +     4HC1     =     4C1     +     2CaCl2    +     2H2O 
Chlorid  of  lime. 

On  a  commercial  scale,  chlorin  is  now  extensively 
made  by  the  electrolysis  of  common  salt. 


60  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Properties. — It  is  a  yellowish-green  gas  (hence  the 
name,  from  chlorus,  green),  with  a  disagreeable  taste 
and  suffocating  odor,  about  two  and  a  half  times 
heavier  than  air,  very  soluble  in  water,  forming  with  it 
chlorin-water.  Under  pressure  it  is  converted  into  a 
yellowish-green  liquid,  and  is  now  obtainable  in  this 
form  in  steel  cylinders.  It  combines  with  all  elements, 
but  with  some  only  indirectly,  as  O,  N,  and  C.  Except- 
ing fluorin,  it  is  the  most  powerful  of  the  halogens,  liber- 
ating iodin  and  bromin  from  their  compounds.  The 
combination  of  chlorin  with  some  substances  is  very 
energetic,  accompanied  by  heat  and,  in  some  instances, 
light.  It  has  great  affinity  for  hydrogen  and  will  de- 
compose compounds  containing  it,  to  rob  them  of  their 
hydrogen.  It  is  a  powerful  disinfecting  and  bleaching 
agent.  Its  action  as  a  bleaching  agent  is  indirect; 
when  used  for  these  purposes,  moisture  must  be  present. 
Its  action  depends  upon  the  formation  of  nascent  oxy- 
gen by  the  chlorin  removing  the  hydrogen  from  the 
H2O;  this  nascent  oxygen,  being  more  energetic,  oxidizes 
or  combines  with  certain  elements  contained  in  these 
compounds. 

Liquor  Chlori  Compositus,  U.  S.  P.,  Chlorin-water. — 
This  is  made  by  treating  potassium  chlorate  with  HC1 
and  adding  water  carefully  to  the  generated  Cl.  It  is 
an  unstable  compound,  combining  with  the  hydrogen  of 
the  H2O,  liberating  oxygen.  It  should  be  freshly  made 
when  wanted. 


CHLORIN  61 

Hydrochloric  Acid,  Muriatic  Acid  (Formula,  HC1; 
Molecular  Weight,  36). — This  acid  is  obtained  by  the 
action  of  H2SO4  upon  a  chlorid,  usually  NaCl: 

2NaCl    +    H2S04     =     2HC1    +    Na2SO4 

It  is  a  colorless  gas,  with  a  penetrating  odor  and 
irritating  to  inhale.  Its  great  affinity  for  H20  is  shown 
by  the  formation  of  a  white  cloud  when  the  gas  comes 
in  contact  with  the  moisture  in  the  atmosphere.  The 
gas  dissolved  in  water  is  the  hydrochloric  acid  of  the 
U.  S.  P.,  and  contains  nearly  32  per  cent,  by  weight  of 
HC1.  The  dilute  acid  contains  10  per  cent.  HC1  is 
found  as  a  constituent  of  the  gastric  juice,  the  exact 
quantity  being  somewhat  in  doubt,  but  approximately 
0.2  per  cent. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Tonic,  refrigerant, 
antiseptic,  irritant,  and  poisonous.  Given  before  meals, 
it  checks  the  flow  of  gastric  juice  and  diminishes  acidity. 
Given  two  or  three  hours  after  food,  it  increases  the 
acidity,  increases  the  saliva,  checks  fermentation,  and 
allays  thirst.  Dose:  strong  acid,  2  to  5  minims;  dilute, 
5  to  30  minims,  both  well  diluted. 

Tests. — With  the  exception  of  silver,  mercurous  and 
lead  chlorids,  all  other  chlorids  are  soluble. 

HC1  or  a  chlorid  added  to  silver  nitrate,  AgNO3, 
produces  a  white  precipitate  of  silver  chlorid,  AgCl, 
soluble  in  NH4OH  and  reprecipitated  upon  the  addition 
of  HN03.  This  reprecipitation  by  HN03  distinguishes 


62  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

chlorids  from  all  other  substances,  producing  white  pre- 
cipitates with  silver  nitrate,  soluble  in  NH4OH. 

Nitrohydrochloric  Acid,  Aqua  Regia;  Nitromuriatic 
Acid. — When  HC1  and  HN03  are  mixed,  chemical  action 
takes  place,  liberating  Cl  and  chlorin  derivatives.  This 
acid  is  remarkable  for  its  solvent  action  upon  gold  and 
platinum,  due  to  the  free  chlorin  contained  in  it.  Neither 
of  the  acids  entering  into  its  manufacture  has  any  effect 
upon  these  metals.  A  dilute  acid  is  also  official. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Tonic,  antiseptic, 
astringent,  escharotic,  and  cholagogue.  It  is  used  in 
intestinal  indigestion  with  diarrhea,  chronic  hepatitis, 
jaundice,  scrofula,  whooping-cough,  and  bronchitis; 
and  externally  as  an  escharotic.  Dose:  strong  acid, 
2  to  5  minims;  dilute  acid,  5  to  30  minims,  both  well 
diluted. 

Toxicology. — Same  as  under  Sulphuric  Acid. 

IODIN 

Symbol,  I;  Atomic  weight,  126. 

This  is  found  in  nature  combined  as  the  iodids  of 
sodium  and  potassium. 

It  is  contained  in  sea-water,  from  which  it  is  taken  up 
by  plants.  Its  chief  source  of  supply  is  from  the  ashes 
of  sea-weeds,  called  kelp.  By  washing  these  ashes  the 
soluble  constituents  contained  in  them  are  dissolved, 
and  after  removal  of  other  substances  contained  in  the 
solution,  and  the  latter  evaporated  to  dryness,  the  iodin 


IODIN  63 

is  obtained  by  a  process  similar  to  obtaining  Cl,  by  treat- 
ing the  residue  with  MnO2  and  H2S04. 

2KI  +  MnO2  +   2H,SO4    =    2!  +  K3SO4  +  MnSO,  +  2H,O 

Potassium 
iodid. 

It  is  also  obtained  from  the  mother  liquor  of  Chili 
saltpeter,  NaNO3. 

It  is  also  found  in  small  quantities  in  the  animal 
economy  as  a  constituent  of  the  thyroid  gland. 

Properties. — Tod  in  is  a  crystalline  substance,  possess- 
ing a  metallic  luster,  a  characteristic  odor,  and  a  sharp, 
biting  taste.  When  heated  it  gives  off  violet  vapors. 
It  is  only  slightly  soluble  in  water.  The  solubility  is 
greatly  increased  by  the  addition  of  binary  halogen 
salts.  It  is  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  carbon  disulphid, 
and  chloroform.  lodin  possesses  antiseptic  properties, 
and  today  a  solution  of  it  in  alcohol  replaces  the  anti- 
septics formerly  used  in  surgical  operations.  It  stains 
tissues  brown.  These  stains  can  be  removed  by  NH4OH 
or  sodium  thiosulphate,  Na2S2O3.  It  is  an  irritant  poison, 
and  the  best  antidote  is  sodium  thiosulphate  or  starch, 
followed  by  emetics. 

Tests  for  lodin  and  lodids. — lodin  turns  blue  with 
boiled  starch.  lodids  with  soluble  lead  salts  produce 
a  yellow  precipitate  of  lead  iodid,  PbI2.  lodids  with 
mercuric  salts  produce  a  red  precipitate  of  mercuric 
iodid,  HgI2,  soluble  in  excess  of  either  reagent. 

Chlorin-water  treated  with  iodids  liberates  the  iodin, 


64  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

and,  if  carbon  disulphid  or  chloroform  is  added  and 
shaken,  the  lower  layer  will  be  turned  violet. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — lodin  is  antiseptic, 
counter-irritant,  and  alterative,  rapidly  absorbed  by 
mucous  membranes  and  eliminated  in  urine,  saliva, 
milk,  and  by  the  intestinal  and  nasal  mucous  mem- 
branes. It  is  mostly  used  externally  for  enlarged  glands, 
abscesses,  swollen  joints,  and  for  its  counter-irritant 
properties  in  general. 

Official  Preparations  Containing  lodin. — Liquor  iodi 
compositus,  Lugol's  solution,  contains  5  per  cent,  of 
iodin  and  10  per  cent,  of  potassium  iodid  dissolved  in 
100  parts  of  water.  Tincture  of  iodin  contains  7  per 
cent,  of  iodin  and  5  per  cent,  of  potassium  iodid  dissolved 
in  sufficient  alcohol  to  make  100  parts.  Unguentum 
iodi  contains  4  per  cent,  each  of  iodin  and  potassium 
dissolved  in  glycerin  and  incorporated  with  sufficient 
ointment  base  to  make  100  parts. 

Hydriodic  Acid  (Formula,  HI;  Molecular  Weight, 
127). — This,  as  noted  under  the  halogens,  is  a  gas  dis- 
solved in  water  constituting  the  HI  of  pharmacy, 
which  is  made  by  adding  tartaric  acid  to  potassium 
iodid  in  the  presence  of  alcohol,  and,  after  cooling, 
separating  the  acid  from  the  cream  tartar,  or  potassium 
bitartrate.  It  contains  10  per  cent,  by  weight  of  the 
absolute  acid,  and  is  principally  used  to  make  the 
syrup  of  hydriodic  acid,  which  contains  i  per  cent,  by 
weight  of  absolute  HI.  The  acid  readily  decomposes. 


BROMIN  65 

This  decomposition  is  somewhat  retarded  by  adding 
hypophosphorous  acid. 

BROMIN 

Symbol,  Br;  Atomic  weight,  80. 

This  element,  like  iodin,  is  found  in  sea-water  and 
in  a  large  number  of  mineral  waters  as  magnesium,  cal- 
cium, and  sodium  bromids,  and  is  prepared  like  chlorin 
and  iodin,  by  treating  the  dried  bromids  with  Mn02 
and  H2S04  or  with  chlorin. 

MgBr2    +     2C1     =     MgCl3    +    2Br 

Magnesium  Magnesium 

bromid.  chlorid. 

It  is  a  reddish-brown  liquid,  three  times  as  heavy  as 
water,  giving  off  suffocating  reddish-brown  vapors  of 
an  irritating  odor.  It  is  slightly  soluble  in  water;  like 
iodin,  its  solubility  is  increased  by  addition  of  the 
binary  halogen  salts.  It  is  freely  soluble  in  alcohol, 
ether,  carbon  disulphid,  and  chloroform.  It  is  a  bleach- 
ing agent,  disinfectant,  and  a  corrosive  poison. 

Toxicology. — Ammonia-water  well  diluted  may  be 
given.  Sodium  thiosulphate  is  of  service.  Demulcent 
drinks  to  allay  irritation.  External  heat,  atropin,  and 
strychnin. 

Medicinal  Properties.— Bromin  by  itself  is  never  given 
internally,  but  its  various  compounds  are  extensively 
used,  and  will  be  considered  under  their  individual 
heads.  Externally,  it  is  rarely  used  as  a  corrosive 
irritant  and  for  glandular  enlargements. 

5 


66  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Hydrobromic  Acid  (Formula,  HBr;  Molecular  Weight, 
81). — Made  by  treating  bromin  under  water  with  H2S 
until  the  brown  color  of  Br  has  disappeared. 

ioBr    +     2HaS     +    4H2O     =     ioHBr    +     H2SO4    +     iS 

The  liquid  is  filtered  from  the  precipitated  sulphur, 
and  separated  from  the  H2SO4  by  distillation.  The  dilute 
acid,  which  is  official,  contains  10  per  cent,  by  weight  of 
HBr. 

Medicinal  Properties. — Sedative,  narcotic;  in  small 
doses,  stimulant  similar  to  potassium  bromid,  but  does 
not  depress  like  it.  Dose:  f  fluidram,  in  syrup  or 
water. 

Tests  for  HBr  and  Bromids. — Chlorin-water  or  HN03 
added  to  bromids  liberate  Br.  If  shaken  with  carbon 
disulphid  or  chloroform  the  lower  layer  will  be  turned 
brown. 

Silver  nitrate  added  to  bromids  produces  a  white 
precipitate,  only  slightly  soluble  in  NH4OH  (difference 

from  chlorids). 

FLUORIN 

Symbol,  F;  Atomic  weight,  19. 

This  element  is  found  as  fluorspar,  CaF2,  also  in  the 
enamel  of  the  teeth  and  in  the  bones  of  mammals.  It 
is  a  yellowish  gas,  of  an  irritating,  suffocating  odor; 
it  is  a  powerful  oxidizing  agent,  greater  than  any  other 
element;  and  it  combines  with  all  elements  except 
oxygen,  with  which  it  combines  neither  directly  nor 
indirectly. 


ACIDS  OF  THE  HALOGENS  67 

Hydrofluoric  acid  is  a  colorless  gas,  obtained  by  the 
action  of  H2SO4  upon  calcium  fluorid: 

CaF,    +    H2SO4     =     2HF     +     CaSO4. 

Hydrofluoric  acid  is  used  to  etch  glass.  The  glass  is 
covered  with  paraffin  or  wax  and  scratched  with  a  sharp 
needle.  It  is  then  exposed  to  the  hydrofluoric  gas,  or 
to  a  solution  of  it  in  water,  kept  in  a  rubber  or  gutta- 
percha  container. 

After  removal  of  the  protective,  the  exposed  surface 
will  be  found  to  be  etched. 

ACIDS   OF   THE  HALOGENS 

Chlorin.  Bromin.  lodin.  Fluorin. 

HC1,  HBr,  HI,  HF, 

Hydrochloric  acid.  Hydrobromic  acid.  Hydriodic  acid.       Hydrofluoric 

acid. 

HC10,  HBrO,  HIO, 

Hypochlorous  acid.  Hypobromous  Hypoiodous  acid. 

acid. 

HC1O2,  HBrO2,  HIO2, 

Chlorous  acid.  Bromous  acid.  lodous  acid. 

HC1O3,  HBrO3,  HIO3, 

Chloric  acid.  Bromic  acid.  lodic  acid. 

HC1O4,  HBrO4,  HIO4, 

Perchloric  acid.  Perbromic  acid.  Per-iodic  acid. 


METALLIC  ELEMENTS 

WE  have  thus  far  considered  only  the  non-metallic 
elements.  We  will  now  take  up  the  more  important 
metallic  elements.  For  convenience  of  study  the 
metals  will  be  divided  into  certain  groups  which  have 
properties  very  much  in  common. 

The  metals  are  divided  into  two  classes:  the  "light 
metals,"  having  a  specific  gravity  (Sp.  G.)  from  0.6  to  4, 
and  the  "heavy  metals/7  Sp.  G.  ranging  from  6  to  22.5. 
Each  class  is  further  divided  into  other  groups. 


LIGHT  METALS 

Alkali  metals.  Alkaline  earth  metals. 

K,  Na,  Li,  (NHJ.  Ba,  Ca,  Sr,  and  Mg. 

Oxids,     carbonates,  Soluble   oxids.     In- 

and  most  soluble  salts,  soluble        carbonates, 


Earth  metals. 
Al. 

Insoluble  oxids,  but 
its   chemical  behavior 


phosphates,    and    sul-    leans  strongly  toward 
phates  (except  Mg).         the  iron  group. 


Iron  group. 

Fe,  Co,  Ni,  Mn,  Zn, 
Cr. 


HEAVY  METALS 

Lead  group. 

Cd,  Pb,  Cu,  Bi,  Ag. 


Arsenic  group. 
As,  Sb,  Sn,  Au,  Pt, 


Sulphids  insoluble  in    Mo. 


Sulphids  soluble  in    dilute  acids. 


Sulphids  insoluble  in 


dilute  acids. 


Sulphids  insoluble  in    dilute  acids. 


ammonium  sulphid. 


Sulphids   soluble   in 
ammonium  sulphid. 


Metals  possess  properties  which  distinguish  them  from 
the  non-metals.     All  have  a  metallic  luster,  with  the 

68 


METALLIC  ELEMENTS  69 

exception  of  iodin,  the  non-metals  do  not  possess  this. 
They  are  conductors  of  heat  and  electricity.  They 
range  in  color  from  silver  white  to  the  yellow  of  gold. 
Copper  is  red.  At  ordinary  temperature  they  are 
solid,  except  mercury,  which  is  the  only  liquid  metal. 
All  can  be  fused  by  heat  and  some  even  distilled,  with- 
out changing  their  metallic  nature.  When  mixed 
with  other  metals  they  form  alloys  and  still  retain  their 
metallic  nature.  When  mercury  constitutes  one  of 
the  ingredients  of  an  alloy  it  is  termed  an  amalgam. 
Metals  treated  with  non-metals  lose  their  metallic 
properties,  but  in  a  few  instances,  as  in  the  compounds 
of  iron  and  sulphur,  the  luster  is  retained.  Metals 
replace  hydrogen  in  acids,  forming  salts. 

Salts,  which  have  already  been  referred  to  on  page  17, 
were  described  as  acids  in  which  part  or  all  of  the  re- 
placeable hydrogen  has  been  exchanged  for  a  metal  or 
basic  radicle.  They  are  divided  into  normal,  acid, 
basic,  and  double  salts. 

Normal  Salts. — A  normal  salt  is  one  in  which  all  the 
replaceable  hydrogen  of  the  acid  has  been  exchanged 
for  a  metal  or  base;  for  example,  if  all  the  hydrogen  in 
H2S04  was  replaced  by  sodium,  Na2SO4  would  be  pro- 
duced. From  its  chemical  behavior  we  should  expect  a 
normal  salt  to  have  a  neutral  reaction  toward  litmus. 
If  both  the  acid  and  the  metal  or  base  are  of  equal 
intensity,  such  will  be  the  case.  Sodium  sulphate,  the 
example  just  shown,  will  be  found  neutral,  as  in  this 


70  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

instance  both  the  acid  and  the  metal  are  of  equal  in- 
tensity. Sodium  carbonate,  Na2C03,  which  is  theoret- 
ically derived  from  H2CO3,  is  chemically  a  normal 
salt,  because  all  the  hydrogen  of  the  H2CO3  is  replaced 
by  sodium,  but,  as  has  already  been  shown,  H2CO3  is 
a  weak  acid,  and,  the  metal  possessing  strong  alkaline 

properties,  the  salt  will  possess  alkaline  reaction  toward 

ft/    // 

litmus.  In  aluminum  sulphate,  A12(SO4)3,  we  have  an 
entirely  different  condition.  The  formula  shows  that 
there  is  no  replaceable  hydrogen  left;  hence,  chemically, 
it  is  a  normal  salt;  but  as  aluminum  is  a  weak  base, 
combined  with  a  strong  acid,  the  salt  possesses  acid 
properties  toward  litmus  and  other  substances. 

Acid  Salts. — In  this  case  only  part  of  the  replaceable 
hydrogen  has  been  exchanged  by  a  metal  or  basic  radicle. 
If  but  one  H  in  H2SO4  is  replaced  by  Na,  NaHSO4  is 
formed.  This  is  called  an  acid  or  bisalt.  As  these  salts 
may,  in  reality,  be  considered  as  partly  acid,  we  could 
infer  that  they  should  possess  acid  reactions;  and  this  is 
generally  true.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  a  weak  acid  were 
used  with  a  strong  base  or  metal,  the  salt  would  have  an 
alkaline  reaction,  as  in  sodium  bicarbonate,  NaHCO3, 
in  which  we  have  the  strong  metal,  Na,  with  the  weak 
acid  H2CO3. 

Basic  or  Subsalts. — These  contain  a  greater  portion 
of  base  than  is  required  to  make  a  normal  salt.  There 
is  no  fixed  rule  which  will  apply  to  all  cases.  Several 
views  are  entertained.  The  most  common  is  that  they 


ALKALI  METALS  71 

are  combinations  of  normal  salts  to  which  an  oxid  of  a 
metal  has  been  added. 


Pb(C2H302)2    +    PbO     =     Pb20(C2H3O,)2 

Lead  acetate.  Lead  oxid.      Basic  acetate  of  lead  or 

lead  subacetate. 

Another  theory  is  that  they  may  be  regarded  as 
metallic  hydroxids,  the  hydroxyl,  (OH),  having  been 
replaced  by  acid  radicles.  Bismuth  hydroxid  is  Bi- 
(OH)3;  replace  one  of  the  (OH)  by  the  acid  radicle  (N08), 
and  the  resulting  compound  is  Bi(OH)2NOs. 

Double  Salts  (Also  Called  Multiple  Salts)—  In.  these 
salts  the  replaceable  hydrogens  of  the  acid  have  been 
exchanged  by  two  or  more  metals  or  bases.  If  in 
H3PO4  two  H  are  replaced  by  Mg  and  the  other  by 

(NH4)  magnesium  ammonium  phosphate  will  be  formed, 
//    /        /// 

Mg(NH4)PO4.  Tartaric  acid  has  the  formula  of  H2- 
(C4H4O6)  ;  if  one  H  is  replaced  by  Na  and  the  other  by 
K  the  double  salt  of  potassium  and  sodium  tartrate, 
commonly  called  Rochelle  salts,  KNaC4H4Oe,  will  be 
formed. 

ALKALI  METALS 

These  are  K,  Na,  Li,  and  the  compounds  of  am- 
monium. They  possess  properties  showing  a  great 
resemblance  to  one  another  in  both  their  chemical  and 
physical  behavior.  They  are  soft;  silver  white  in  ap- 
pearance; univalent,  that  is,  have  but  one  bond;  and 
when  thrown  upon  water  decompose  it,  liberating 


72  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

hydrogen.  They  must  be  preserved  under  coal  oil 
or  the  hydrocarbons.  Their  hydroxids  and  carbon- 
ates, except  lithium  carbonate,  are  soluble  in  water 
and  possess  a  strong  alkaline  reaction;  they  saponify 
fats  and  completely  neutralize  acids.  Since  the 
salts  of  these  metals  are  so  similar,  they  will  be 
treated  together,  except  in  cases  where  special  dis- 
tinctions will  be  noted. 


POTASSIUM  AND   SODIUM 

Potassium  (Symbol,  K;  Atomic  weight,  39;  Valence, 
i)  is  found  in  nature  as  the  nitrate  and  chlorid,  in 
feldspar  and  in  plants,  from  which  it  is  extracted  as 
the  carbonate  from  the  ash.  As  sulphate  and  chlorid 
it  is  found  in  enormous  quantities  in  the  Strassfurt 
mines.  Medicinally,  the  potassium  compounds  de- 
press the  heart  and  lower  muscle  activity. 

Sodium  (Symbol,  Na;  Atomic  weight,  23;  Valence,  i) 
is  found  principally  in  the  form  of  the  chlorid,  as  rock- 
salt,  common  salt,  and  also  dissolved  in  water.  It  is 
also  found,  as  the  nitrate,  in  Chili  saltpeter. 

Potassium  Hydroxid  (KOH;  Molecular  Weight,  56) 
and  Sodium  Hydroxid  (NaOH;  Molecular  Weight,  40). 
—Caustic  soda  and  potassium.  These  are  made  by 
boiling  dilute  solutions  of  their  respective  carbonates 
with  calcium  hydroxid.  The  hydroxid  is  separated 
from  the  insoluble  calcium  carbonate,  CaC03,  by  de- 


POTASSIUM  AND  SODIUM  73 

cantation,    evaporated    in    silver    vessels,    fused,    and 
poured  into  pencil-shaped  molds. 

K,CO3      +     Ca(OH),     =     2KOH      +     CaCO3    or 
Na,C03     +     Ca(OH),     =     2NaOH     -f     CaCO3 

They  are  hard,  brittle,  white  solids;  deliquescent; 
absorb  CO2  from  the  atmosphere;  very  soluble  in  water 
and  alcohol;  highly  caustic  and  escharotic. 

Toxicology. — The  treatment,  which  is  similar  to 
ammonia-water  and  all  caustic  alkalis  or  alkaline 
earths,  is  to  neutralize  by  giving  vegetable  acids,  such 
as  vinegar  or  lemon-juice,  followed  by  bland  fats  or 
oils  or  demulcents  to  allay  irritation. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Externally,  in  the 
solid  form  or  strong  solution,  as  an  escharotic.  In- 
ternally, highly  diluted,  as  an  antacid;  in  acid  dyspepsia, 
before  meals,  stimulates  acid  secretion;  at  the  end  of 
or  after  meals  neutralizes  the  excessive  acidity  of  the 
gastric  juice  already  secreted.  Also  alkalinizes  the 
urine  and  checks  saliva.  The  official  solution  of  each 
of  these  hydroxids  contains  5  per  cent,  of  absolute  hy- 
droxid  and  is  given  in  doses  of  5  to  30  minims,  well 
diluted. 

Potassium  Carbonate,  Salts  of  Tartar  (K2C03;  Molec- 
ular Weight,  138)  and  Sodium  Carbonate  (Na2C03; 
Molecular  Weight,  106). — Potassium  carbonate  is  ob- 
tained from  wood  ashes  by  the  process  of  lixiviation. 
It  is  a  white  deliquescent  salt,  with  strong  basic  prop- 


74  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

erties.  Sodium  carbonate  of  pharmacy  contains  i 
molecule  of  water  of  crystallization,  and  has  the  for- 
mula of  Na2CO3.H2O.  In  commerce  this  salt  occurs 
in  the  form  of  large  crystals,  more  commonly  called 
sal  soda  or  washing-soda,  containing  10  molecules  of 
water  of  crystallization,  Na2CO3.ioH2O. 

Medicinal  Properties. — The  carbonates  of  these  metals 
are  not  often  used  except  as  antacids,  well  diluted,  in 
doses  of  5  to  20  gr. 

Potassium  Bicarbonate  (KHCO3;  Molecular  Weight, 
100)  and  Sodium  Bicarbonate  (NaHCOs;  Molecular 
Weight,  84). — These  are  made  by  passing  CO2  into 
solutions  of  their  respective  carbonates. 

They  are  less  alkaline  than  the  carbonates,  and  are 
principally  used  as  antacids  in  doses  of  5  to  40  gr. 
Sodium  bicarbonate  is  combined  with  sugar  and  nut- 
megs to  form  the  troches  of  sodium  bicarbonate,  each 
containing  nearly  3  gr.  of  it. 

Potassium  Sulphate  (K2SO4;  Molecular  Weight,  174) 
and  Sodium  Sulphate  (Na2SO4.ioH2O;  Molecular 
Weight,  322). — The  former  exists  in  nearly  all  the 
fluids  of  the  body  and  in  the  urine.  Sodium  sulphate, 
also  known  as  " Glauber's  salts,"  is  made  by  the  action 
of  H2S04  upon  NaCl,  and  is  usually  obtained  as  a  by- 
product in  the  manufacture  of  HC1. 

2NaCl    +    H2SO4     =     N^SCX    +     2HC1 

Medicinal  Properties. — Sodium  sulphate  is  a  hydra- 
gogue  cathartic,  and  is  given  in  doses  of  2  to  8  drams. 


POTASSIUM  AND  SODIUM  75 

Sodium  Thiosulphate  (Formula,  Na2S2O3.5H2O;  Mo- 
lecular Weight,  248). — This  compound,  which  is  improp- 
erly called  hyposulphite  of  soda  and  even  "hypo,"  is 
largely  used  in  photography.  It  is  useful  as  an  anti- 
dote to  iodin-poisoning,  and  is  used  in  paper-making 
to  neutralize  the  chlorin  used  as  a  bleaching  agent. 

Medicinal  Properties. — Alterative,  resolvent,  and  anti- 
fermentative.  Dose,  from  5  to  30  gr.  As  an  antidote, 
the  dose  depends  upon  the  amount  of  poison  taken. 

Sodium  Phosphate  (Formula,  Na2HPO4.i2H2O; 
Molecular  Weight,  358). — It  was  stated  under  Phos- 
phoric Acid  (see  p.  57)  that  it  was  possible  to  have  three 
sodium  phosphates:  Na3PO4;  Na2HPO4,  the  official 
sodium  phosphate  and  which  is  found  in  the  blood; 
and  NaH2PO4,  found  in  the  urine. 

The  official  sodium  phosphate  is  made  by  neutraliz- 
ing with  sodium  carbonate,  Na2C03,  a  solution  of  acid 
calcium  phosphate,  which  is  obtained  by  the  action  of 
H2SO4  upon  calcium  phosphate,  and  the  evaporation 
of  the  solution  removed  from  the  precipitated  calcium 
phosphate. 

Medicinal  Properties. — Alterative  in  doses  of  20  to  30 
gr.  Purgative  and  hepatic  stimulant  in  doses  of  2  to  6 
drams. 

Sodium  phosphate  is  soluble  in  about  5.5  parts  of 
water.  Its  solubility  is  greatly  increased  by  the  addi- 
tion of  citric  acid.  The  Liquor  sodii  phosphatis  com- 
positus  is  practically  a  100  per  cent,  solution  of  it,  due  to 


76  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

the  formation  of  more  soluble  compounds.  The  granu- 
lar effervescent  sodium  phosphate  contains  20  per  cent,  of 
the  dried  salt  combined  with  tartaric  and  citric  acids, 
with  sodium  bicarbonate.  Sodium  phosphate  exsiccated 
is  the  crystallized  salt  heated,  not  above  100°  C.,  until 
it  no  longer  loses  water.  It  is  two  and  a  half  times 
more  active  than  the  regular  sodium  phosphate. 

Sodium  Sulphite  (Formula,  Na2SO3.7H20;  Molecular 
Weight,  252). — Made  by  neutralizing  a  solution  of 
Na2CO3  with  S02.  When  an  excess  of  S02  is  used, 
sodium  bisulphate  is  formed.  Sodium  sulphite  exists 
in  crystalline  form  without  odor,  while  sodium  bi- 
sulphite gives  off  the  odor  of  SO2. 

Medicinal  Properties. — Antifermentative  in  doses  of 
5  to  30  gr. 

Sodium  pyrophosphate  (Formula,  Na4P207.ioH20; 
Molecular  weight,  446)  is  produced  by  heating  sodium 
phosphate  to  a  low  red  heat. 

2Na2HPO4     =     Na4P2O7    +    H2O 

Medicinally,  it  is  similar  to  the  phosphate. 

Potassium  Nitrate,  Saltpeter  (KNO3;  Molecular 
Weight,  101)  and  Sodium  Nitrate,  Chili  Saltpeter 
(NaNO3;  Molecular  Weight,  85).— These  salts  are  found 
native,  are  purified  by  crystallization,  and  are  the  prin- 
cipal sources  of  HNO3. 

Medicinal  Properties. — Refrigerant  and  diuretic  in 
doses  of  5  to  15  gr.  Purgative  in  doses  of  2  to  6  drams. 


POTASSIUM  AND  SODIUM  77 

Sodium  Nitrite  (KNO2;  Molecular  Weight,  85)  and 
Potassium  Nitrite  (NaNO2;  Molecular  Weight,  69). — 
These  are  made  by  heating  potassium  or  sodium  nitrate 
with  metallic  lead,  which  removes  the  oxygen.  It  is 
used  in  the  preparation  of  the  official  spirits  of  nitre. 

Medicinal  Properties. — Sodium  nitrite  is  a  cardiac 
depressant  and  antispasmodic,  similar  in  action  to  amyl 
nitrite  and  nitroglycerin,  but  milder  and  more  uniform. 
Dose,  i  to  5  gr. 

Sodium  Chlorid,  Common  Salt  (Formula,  NaCl; 
Molecular  Weight,  58).— This  substance  is  the  principal 
sodium  compound,  and  is  largely  used  as  a  source  of 
the  other  sodium  compounds.  It  is  found  in  all  parts 
of  the  animal  economy,  the  total  quantity  in  the  body 
being  estimated  as  no  grams.  It  aids  absorption  of 
albuminoid  substances  by  osmosis.  It  furnishes  the 
HC1  of  the  gastric  juice  through  decomposition.  It  is 
eliminated  by  the  urine  as  the  double  chlorids  of  sodium 
and  potassium,  and  also  by  the  perspiration. 

This  elimination  is  decreased  in  febrile  conditions. 

When  pure,  it  is  non-hygroscopic  and,  as  commonly 
found,  contains  calcium  and  magnesium  chlorids,  which 
absorb  moisture  from  the  air,  becoming  damp  and 
caking. 

Potassium  lodid  (KI;  Molecular  Weight,  165)  and 
Sodium  lodid  (Nal;  Molecular  Weight,  149). — Made  by 
the  action  of  iodin  upon  the  respective  hydroxids  of 
potassium  and  sodium,  and  fusing  the  mixed  iodid  and 


78  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

iodate  with  charcoal,  dissolving  in  water  and  crystal- 
lizing: 

6KOH    +    61    =    SKI    -f    KI03    +    3H2O 

Potassium 
iodate. 

and 

KIO,    +    3C    =    KI    +    3CO 

Medicinal  Properties. — Alterative,  stimulant,  and  ab- 
sorbent. Dose,  2  to  30  gr. 

Potassium  Bromid  (KBr;  Molecular  Weight,  119) 
and  Sodium  Bromid  (NaBr;  Molecular  Weight,  103). — 
These  compounds  are  made  by  a  method  similar  to 
that  for  iodids,  substituting  Br  for  I. 

Medicinal  Properties. — Sedative,  hypnotic,  anesthetic, 
narcotic,  and  anaphrodisiac,  in  10-  to  6o-gr.  doses. 
As  an  antidote  to  strychnin-poisoning  in  doses  of  3  to  4 
drams. 

Sodium  Hypophosphite  (Na(PH2O2).H2O;  Molecular 
Weight,  106)  and  Potassium  Hypophosphite  (K(PH2O2) ,' 
Molecular  Weight,  104). — The  hypophosphites  of  these 
metals  are  made  by  interaction  of  the  solutions  of  their 
respective  carbonates  with  calcium  hypophosphites  and 
gently  evaporating  the  solution  separated  from  the  in- 
soluble calcium  carbonate. 

Medicinal  Properties. — Their  use  is  believed  to  depend 
upon  the  phosphorus  contained  in  them.  They  are  used 
in  scrofulous  affections,  bronchitis,  and  depleted  nerve 
power.  The  dose  is  from  5  to  30  gr.  These  hypophos- 
phites are  contained  in  the  various  official  syrups  of  the 


POTASSIUM  AND  SODIUM  79 

hypophosphites  and  in  emulsion  cod-liver  oil  with  hypo- 
phosphites. 

Potassium  Chlorate  (KC1O3;  Molecular  Weight,  122). 
— This  compound  is  made  by  the  action  of  Cl  on  heated 
solution  of  KOH. 

6C1    -f    6KOH     =     sKCl    +    KC1O3 

Also  by  oxidizing  by  electrolysis  a  solution  of  potas- 
sium chlorid. 

It  is  a  white  crystalline  substance,  a  powerful  oxidiz- 
ing agent,  and  must  not  be  triturated,  in  the  dry  condi- 
tion, with  organic  matter.  Yields  chlorin  upon  addi- 
tion of  strong  acids. 

Medicinal  Properties. — Alterative,  oxidizant,  astrin- 
gent, and  diuretic.  Dose,  5  to  20  gr.  It  enters  into  the 
preparation  of  troches  of  potassium  chlorate,  which  con- 
tain about  2 §  gr.  each. 

Salts  of  Potassium  and  Sodium  with  Organic  Acids.— 
Acetic,  benzoic,  citric,  tartaric,  and  salicylic  acid,  when 
acted  upon  by  the  carbonates  of  sodium,  potassium, 
ammonium,  or  lithium,  produce  the  corresponding  salts. 
These  will  be  considered  under  the  Organic  Acids. 

Tests  of  Potassium  and  Sodium.-— Potassium.— If  to 
a  solution  of  a  potassium  salt  a  solution  of  tartaric  acid 
is  added  until  acid  in  reaction,  and  a  small  amount  of 
alcohol  is  added,  a  granular  white  precipitate  of  cream 
of  tartar  is  produced. 

Potassium  compounds  when  held  in  a  non-luminous 


80  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

flame  impart  a  violet  color  to  it,  not  obscured  by  blue 
glass. 

Sodium. — As  practically  all  sodium  compounds  are 
soluble,  no  test  by  precipitation  can  be  carried  out,  as 
with  the  other  metals.  The  compounds  of  this  metal 
impart  to  the  non-luminous  flame  a  yellow  color,  ob- 
scured by  blue  glass. 

LITHIUM 

Symbol,  Li;  Atomic  weight,  7. 

Lithium  is  found,  in  very  small  quantities,  in  various 
waters.  It  is  also  found  as  the  carbonate  and  phosphate. 
It  is  characterized  by  the  crimson  color  which  it  gives  to 
the  non-luminous  Bunsen  flame.  The  carbonates  and 
phosphates  are  insoluble  and,  in  this  respect,  differ  from 
the  other  metals  of  the  alkalis,  Na  and  K. 

The  salts  of  lithium  which  are  official  are  the  benzoate, 
bromid,  carbonate,  citrate,  and  salicylate. 

Medicinally,  they  are  supposed  to  possess  diuretic 
properties  and  to  be  solvents  for  calculi. 

AMMONIUM  COMPOUNDS 

/ 

The  salts  of  the  radicle  ammonium  (NH4)  possess 
both  physical  and  chemical  properties  quite  similar  to 
those  of  potassium  and  sodium. 

Ammonium  Hydroxid,  Ammonia-water,  NH4OH. — (See 
page  33.) 

Ammonium  Carbonate,  Sal  Volatile  (Formula,  NH4- 
HCO3.NH2NH4CO2).— This  is  not  the  normal  car- 


AMMONIUM  COMPOUNDS  8l 

bonate,  the  formula  of  which  would  be  (NH4)2C03,  but 
is  a  mixture  of  acid  ammonium  carbonate  and  am- 
monium carbamate,  obtained  by  sublimation  (see  page 
no)  of  a  mixture  of  ammonium  sulphate  and  calcium 
carbonate.  It  is  a  volatile  salt,  with  the  odor  of  am- 
monia, and  is  used  principally  in  the  preparation  of 
spirits  of  ammonia  aromatic. 

Medicinal  Properties. — Cardiac  stimulant,  expectorant, 
and  rubefacient.  Used  in  bronchitis,  pneumonia,  and 
faintness.  Dose,  2  to  3  gr. 

Ammonium  Chlorid,  Sal  Ammoniac  (NH4C1;  Mo- 
lecular Weight,  53). — Made  by  neutralizing  NH4OH 
with  HC1,  and  purifying. 

Medicinal  Properties. — Stimulant,  irritant,  and  ex- 
pectorant. Dose,  3  to  20  gr.  It  is  contained  in  the 
troches  of  ammonium  chlorid,  which  contain  ij  gr.  each, 
combined  with  extract  of  licorice. 

Ammonium  bromid  (NH4Br)  and  ammonium  iodid 
(NH4I)  are  similar,  in  both  their  chemical  and  medicinal 
properties,  to  those  of  sodium  and  potassium. 

Ammonium  Nitrate  (NH4NO3;  Molecular  Weight, 
80).— This  is  made  by  neutralizing  NH4OH  with  HNO3, 
evaporating  the  solution,  and  allowing  the  salt  to  crystal- 
lize. It  is  used  principally  in  the  preparation  of  nitrous 
oxid,  or  laughing-gas,  N2O. 

Tests  of  the  Ammonium  Compounds. — The  ammonium 
compounds  differ  from  those  of  the  alkalis  by  being 
volatilized  under  direct  heat. 

6 


82  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

If  to  a  solution  of  an  ammonium  salt  a  caustic  alkali 
is  added  and  heat  is  applied,  the  odor  of  NH3  will  be 
detected,  and  the  NH3  given  off  will  turn  moistened  red 
litmus-paper  blue. 

ALKALINE  EARTH  METALS 

These  are  Ca,  Ba,  Sr,  and  Mg.  They  all  have  a 
valence  of  2.  Their  salts  are  characterized  by  their 
oxids  and  hydroxids,  have  an  alkaline  reaction,  and  are 
only  slightly  soluble.  Their  carbonates,  phosphates, 
and  sulphates  are  insoluble,  except  magnesium  sulphate, 
which  is  soluble. 

CALCIUM 

Symbol,  Ca;  Atomic  weight,  40;  Valence,  2. 

This  is  found  as  the  carbonate,  CaCO3,  in  limestone, 
marble,  chalk,  and  oyster  shells;  as  the  sulphate, 
in  gypsum  and  alabaster;  and  as  phosphate, 
in  various  rocks  and  bones. 

Calcium  Oxid,  Lime  (CaO;  Molecular  Weight,  56). — 
Prepared  by  calcination,  that  is,  by  highly  heating  a 
carbonate  to  drive  off  the  CO2. 

CaCO3     =     CaO    +    CO2 

Lime  is  a  white,  odorless,  infusible  substance  which, 
when  exposed  to  air,  gradually  absorbs  moisture  and  C02, 
becoming  slaked,  with  the  formation  of  the  carbonate. 
Upon  the  addition  of  water  it  evolves  great  heat,  form- 
ing the  hydroxid  or  milk-of-lime,  Ca(OH)2,  the  solution 
of  which  is  known  as  lime-water.  Lime-water  readily 


CALCIUM  83 

absorbs  CO2,  forming  the  carbonate,  becoming  useless. 
Hence,  lime-water  should  be  freshly  made. 

Medicinal  Preparations. — Liquor  calcis,  or  lime-water, 
is  a  saturated  solution  of  Ca(OH)2  in  water.  Syrup  of 
lime  contains  a  larger  amount  of  lime  than  lime-water, 
due  to  the  sugar  forming  a  more  soluble  compound  with 
it.  The  Linimentum  calcis,  or  canon  oil,  is  made  by 
mixing  equal  volumes  of  linseed  oil  and  lime-water,  and 
is  used  in  burns. 

Calcium  Carbonate  (CaC03;  Molecular  Weight,  100). 
— This  is  official  in  two  forms:  the  Creta  preparata,  or 
prepared  chalk,  a  constituent  of  chalk  mixture;  and 
precipitated  chalk,  made  by  adding  a  soluble  carbonate 
to  calcium  chlorid,  and  is  principally  used  as  a  dentifrice : 
Na2CO3  +  CaCl2  =  CaCO3  +  2NaCl 

Calcium  Hypophosphite  (Ca(PH2O2)2;  Molecular 
Weight,  170). — Made  by  heating  phosphorus  with  milk- 
of-Iime  until  phosphin,  PH3,  is  no  longer  evolved. 

8P     +    3Ca(OH)2     +     6H,O     =     3Ca(PHjO2)2    +     2PH3 

It  is  used  to  prepare  the  other  hypophosphites  and 
hypophosphorous  acid. 

Medicinal  Properties,  Uses,  and  Preparations. — These 
are  similar  to  those  of  sodium  and  potassium. 

Chlorinated  Lime,  Bleaching  Powder.  (See  page 
59). — This  compound  is  made  by  passing  chlorin  gas 
over  slaked  lime. 

2Ca(OH)2    -h    4C1     =     Ca(ClO)2    .    CaCla    +     2H,O 

Chlorinated  lime. 


84  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

It  is  a  powerful  disinfectant  and  bleaching  agent, 
with  an  odor  of  chlorin,  and  evolves  the  latter  upon  the 
addition  of  acids.  It  is  used  pharmaceutically  for  the 
preparation  of  Liquor  sodce  chlorinates  (Labarraque's 
solution)  by  treating  it  with  a  solution  of  sodium  car- 
bonate. 

Calcium  Sulphate  (CaS04.2H2O).— This  is  found 
native  as  gypsum,  and,  when  heated,  loses  it  water  of 
crystallization,  forming  "plaster  Paris";  used  to  fix 
surgical  dressings  and  making  casts.  When  water  is 
added  to  it,  it  assumes  its  hydrated  crystalline  state. 

Calcium  Bromid  (CaBr2)  and  Calcium  Chlorid  (CaCl2). 
—These  compounds  are  prepared  by  neutralizing  their 
respective  acids  with  calcium  carbonate.  They  are 
highly  deliquescent  salts.  The  properties  of  the  former 
are  identical  with  those  of  sodium  and  potassium.  The 
latter  is  used  in  drying,  gases,  and,  internally,  as  a  resol- 
vent, in  doses  of  10  to  20  gr. 

Tests  for  Calcium. — Soluble  salts  of  calcium  produce 
a  granular  precipitate  with  ammonium  oxalate,  (NHUV 
C2O4,  insoluble  in  acetic  acid.  It  colors  a  non-luminous 
flame  a  yellowish  red. 

STRONTIUM 

Symbol,  Sr;  Atomic  weight,  87. 

This  metal  is  found  principally  as  carbonate  and 
sulphate. 
The  official  salts  are  the  bromids,  iodids,  and  salicyl- 


BARIUM  85 

ates,  and  they  possess  properties  similar  to  those  of  the 
alkalis  with  corresponding  acids. 

Strontium  salts  tinge  a  non-luminous  flame  a  crimson 
color. 

Toxicology. — The  nitrate  of  strontium,  which  is  prin- 
cipally used  in  pyrotechnics,  is  poisonous;  and  as  the 
metals  of  this  group  form  insoluble  carbonates,  phos- 
phates, and  sulphates,  the  sodium  salts  of  these  acids 
can  be  used,  followed  by  emetics.  Magnesium  sulphate 
can  also  be  used. 

BARIUM 

Symbol,  Ba;  Atomic  weight,  137. 

Barium  is  found  as  both  the  carbonate  and  the  sul- 
phate. 

Barium  Dioxid  or  Peroxid  (Ba02;  Molecular  Weight, 
169). — This  compound,  which  is  so  extensively  used  in 
the  preparation  of  the  other  dioxids  and  H202,  q.  v.,  is 
made  by  heating  the  oxid  to  red  heat. 

Barium  Chlorid  (BaCl2;  Molecular  Weight,  207).— 
This  is  made  by  neutralizing  BaC03  with  HC1,  and  is 
used  as  a  reagent  in  the  chemical  laboratory. 

Barium  salts  are  poisonous,  and  their  antidote  is 
sodium  or  magnesium  sulphate,  followed  by  emetics  or 
the  compounds  which  will  produce  insoluble  salts,  as 
stated  under  the  Toxicology  of  Strontium. 

Tests. — Sulphuric  acid  or  soluble  sulphates  produce 
a  white  precipitate  of  BaS04,  insoluble  in  HC1.  This  is 


86  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

not  only  true  of  barium  compounds,  but  other  metals 
give  similar  results. 

Barium  compounds  impart  a  green  color  to  a  non- 
luminous  flame. 

MAGNESIUM 

Symbol,  Mg;  Atomic  weight,  24;  Valence,  2. 

This  element  is  found  as  the  carbonate,  sulphate, 
and  silicate.  The  metal  is  of  a  bluish-white  color. 
When  it  burns  it  produces  an  intensely  brilliant  flame, 
and  is  used  in  the  composition  of  "flash-light"  powders. 

Magnesium  Oxid,  Calcined  Magnesia;  Magnesia  Alba 
(MgO;  Molecular  Weight,  40). — This  compound,  fol- 
lowing the  general  methods  of  forming  oxids,  is  made  by 
calcination  of  magnesium  carbonate. 

MgCO,    =    MgO    +    CO, 

It  is  a  very  light,  white  powder,  very  slightly  soluble 
in  water,  to  which  it  imparts  an  alkaline  reaction,  due 
to  the  formation  of  hydroxid,  Mg(OH)2,  commonly 
called,  "milk  of  magnesia."  Another  variety,  Magnesia 
ponderosa,  or  heavy  magnesia  oxid,  is  also  official. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Antacid  and  ca- 
thartic in  doses  of  5  to  60  gr.  It  is  also  used  as  a  dusting- 
powder. 

Magnesium  Carbonate  (MgC03;  Molecular  Weight, 
84). — This  occurs  native  as  magnesite;  but  the  official 
magnesium  carbonate,  (MgCO3)4.Mg(OH)2.5H2O,  is  ob- 
tained by  adding  a  solution  of  sodium  carbonate, 


ALUMINUM  87 

,  to  a  solution  of  magnesium  sulphate,  MgSO4, 
and  washing  and  drying  the  precipitate  produced. 
Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Similar  to  the  oxid. 
Magnesium    Sulphate,    Epsom    Salt    (MgSO4.7H2O; 
Molecular  Weight,  246). — This  salt  was  originally  ob- 
tained by  evaporating  the  waters  of  Epsom  Springs, 
England;  hence  the  name.     It  is  made  by  treating  the 
native  carbonate  with  H2SO4. 

MgCO3    +    HjSO,     =     MgSO4    +    CO3    +    H2O 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Cathartic,  refriger- 
ant, and  diuretic.  Dose,  from  2  to  8  drams.  The 
infusion  of  senna  compound,  or  "black  draught,"  con- 
tains magnesium  sulphate,  senna,  manna,  and  fennel. 
The  average  dose  is  4  fluidounces. 

Tests  of  Magnesium. — Solution  of  magnesium  salts, 
added  to  .NH4C1,  NH4OH,  and  Na2HPO4,  produces  a 
granular  precipitate  of  MgNH4PO4. 

ALUMINUM 

Symbol,  Al;  Atomic  weight,  27;  Valence,  3. 

This  element  is  very  widely  distributed  in  clay  and 
various  minerals,  principally  as  silicate.  As  oxid,  it  is 
found  in  the  ruby,  sapphire,  corundum,  and  emery. 

Properties. — The  metal  is  of  a  silver-white  color,  with 
a  slight  bluish  cast.  It  is  the  lightest  of  the  commonly 
used  metals;  specific  gravity,  2.67;  ductile,  malleable, 
hard,  and  a  good  conductor  of  heat  and  electricity.  It 
is  readily  dissolved  by  HC1  and  alkali  hydroxids,  produc- 


88  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

ing  H.  HNO3  does  not  affect  it.  Aluminum  possesses 
weak  basic  properties,  and  its  soluble  salts  are  acid  in 
reaction,  and  liberate  CO2  from  carbonates,  in  the 
presence  of  water. 

Alums. — The  term  "alum"  is  applied  to  that  class  of 
salts  composed  of  the  double  sulphate  of  a  univalent  and 
trivalent  metal  with  12  molecules  of  water  of  crystalliza- 
tion. A lums  do  not  necessarily  contain  aluminum.  The 
following  examples  are  some  of  the  commoner  alums: 

Ammonia  alum,  NH4Al(SO4)2.i2H2O. 

Chrome  alum,  KCr(SO4)2.i2H2O. 

Ferric  alum,  NH4Fe(S04)2.i2H2O. 

Potassium  alum,  KAl(SO4)2.i2H2O. 

The  last  compound  is  the  official  alum,  and  is  the  sub- 
stance that  should  be  given  when  "alum"  is  called  for. 
"Ferric  alum"  is  also  official,  but  it  will  be  seen  that 
it  does  not  contain  aluminum. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Astringent  in  doses 
of  5  to  30  gr.;  emetic  in  doses  of  i  to  2  drams.  Also 
used  externally  as  a  desiccant  and  astringent. 

Alumen  exsiccatum,  dried  alum,  burnt  alum,  is  alum 
deprived  of  its  water  of  crystallization. 

Aluminum  Hydroxid  (A1(OH)3;  Molecular  Weight, 
78). — This  is  obtained  by  adding  solutions  of  alkali 
hydroxids  or  carbonates  to  aluminum  salts.  The  gelat- 
inous precipitate  obtained  is  well  washed  and  dried. 

Aluminum  Sulphate  (A12(SO4)3;  Molecular  Weight, 
342). — This  is  prepared  by  dissolving  aluminum  hy- 


IRON  89 

droxid  or  oxid  in  H2SO4,  and  evaporating  the  solution  to 
dryness. 

2A1(OH)3    +    3H,S04     =     A12(S04)3    +    6H20 


Kaolinum,  Kaolin;  Pipe  Clay;  China  Clay.  —  This  is 
the  native  aluminum  silicate,  used  in  the  preparation 
of  Cataplasma  kaolini,  by  incorporating  the  well-dried 
kaolin  with  glycerin  and  antiseptics.  It  is  used  as  a 
poultice,  and  should  be  well  covered,  as  it  absorbs  moist- 
ure from  the  atmosphere,  becoming  semi-liquid.  Kaolin 
is  used  as  a  filtering  agent.  Combined  with  petrolatum, 
it  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  pills  of  those  substances 
which  are  reduced  by  organic  matter,  as  silver  nitrate 
and  potassium  permanganate. 

Tests  of  Aluminum.  —  Aluminum  compounds  produce 
with  Na2CO3  and  NH4OH  a  gelatinous  white  precipitate 
of  A1(OH)3  insoluble  in  an  excess  of  the  reagent.  With 
NaOH  or  KOH  the  precipitate  is  soluble  in  an  excess  of 
the  reagent. 

IRON 

Symbol,  Fe;  Atomic  weight,  55.5;  Valence,  2,  3. 

Iron  is  found  in  nature  principally  as  the  oxid  and 
sulphid.  It  is  also  found  in  plants  and,  in  the  animal 
system,  in  the  hematin  of  the  blood.  It  is  the  most 
useful  of  all  the  common  metals.  Specific  gravity,  7.78. 
It  forms  two  classes  of  compounds  :  the  ferrous,  light 
green  in  color;  the  ferric,  usually  reddish  brown. 

Iron  by  Hydrogen,  Qmvenne's  Iron;  Reduced  Iron.  — 


90  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

This  contains  about  90  per  cent,  of  metallic  iron,  and  is 
obtained  by  passing  hydrogen  over  heated  ferric  oxid. 
FeA    +    6H     =     2Fe    +    3H2O 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — A  chalybeate  tonic 
in  doses  of  i  to  5  gr.,  usually  in  pills. 

Ferric  Hydroxid  (Fe(OH)3;  Molecular  Weight,  107). 
— Made  by  precipitating  a  solution  of  a  ferric  salt  with 
an  alkaline  hydroxid  or  carbonate. 

FeCl3    +    3NH4OH     =     Fe(OH)3    +    3NH4C1    or 
Fe2(SOJ3  +  3Na2C03  +  3H2O  =  2Fe(OH)3  +  3Na2SO4  +  3CO2 

It  is  used  as  an  antidote  to  arsenic-poisoning,  and  also 
as  the  starting-point  of  a  large  number  of  the  official 
iron  compounds  and  solutions. 

Ferrous  Chlorid,  Protochlorid  of  Iron  (FeCl2;  Molecular 
Weight,  182). — Obtained,  as  a  green  solution,  by  treat- 
ing metallic  iron  with  HC1: 

Fe    +     2HC1     =     FeCl2    +     aH 

The  ferrous  salts  are  prone  to  decomposition  and 
become  oxidized  to  the  ferric  condition.  Such  change 
is  prevented  by  the  addition  of  organic  matter,  such  as 
sugar. 

Ferric  Chlorid,  Perchlorid  of  Iron  (FeCl3;  Molecular 
Weight,  160.5). — This  is  obtained  by  oxidizing  FeCl2, 
obtained  by  the  above  method,  with  HN(V. 

3FeCl2    +    HN03    +    3HC1     =     3FeCl3    +    NO    +     2H2O 

It  is  found  in  pharmacy  both  in  the  solid  state  and 
in  solution.  The  latter  contains  29  per  cent,  of  the 


IRON  91 

anhydrous  salt,  corresponding  to  10  per  cent,  of  metallic 
iron,  and  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  tincture  of  iron 
chlorid  by  adding  to  35  parts  of  it,  by  volume,  65  of 
alcohol. 

Ferrous  Sulphate,  Green  Vitriol;  Copperas  (FeSO4.- 
7H2O;  Molecular  Weight,  277.5).— Made  by  dissolving 
iron  in  dilute  H2SO4,  evaporating,  and  crystallizing. 

It  exists  in  the  form  of  large  transparent,  green 
crystals,  soluble  in  water.  When  exposed  to  air,  it 
effloresces,  losing  water  of  crystallization,  and  oxidizes. 

Dried  sulphate  of  iron,  exsiccated  sulphate  of  iron 
(FeS04),  is  the  crystallized  sulphate  of  iron  deprived  of 
its  water  of  crystallization  by  heat. 

Solution  of  Ferric   Sulphate    (Fe2(S04)3;   Molecular 
Weight,   299).— Made  by  heating  FeS04  with  HN03 
and  H2SO4: 
6FeS04    +    2HN03    +    3H2SO4    =    3Fe2(SOJ3    +    2NO    +    4H2O 

When  an  excess  of  the  iron  sulphate  is  used  the  basic 
or  subsulphate  of  iron  (Monsel's  solution)  is  formed. 
This  is  used  as  a  styptic. 

Ferrous  Carbonate  (FeCO3;  Molecular  Weight,  115.5). 
—This  compound  is  obtained  by  treating  a  solution  of 
ferrous  sulphate  with  sodium  carbonate: 

FeSO4    +    Na2CO3     =     FeCO3    +     Na2SO4 

Ferrous  salts  have  a  tendency  to  undergo  oxidation, 
becoming  converted  into  the  ferric  condition,  which  is 
prevented  by  the  addition  of  organic  matter,  as  sugar. 


92  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Such  compounds  as  saccharated  ferrous  carbonate,  mass 
of  ferrous  carbonate  (Vallet's  mass),  pills  of  ferrous  car- 
bonate, and  compound  iron  mixture  (Griffith's  mixture) 
are  official,  and  are  composed  of  ferrous  carbonate 
with  saccharine  substances. 

Ferric  Phosphate  (FePO4). — This  is  a  grayish-green 
powder.  The  soluble  phosphate  and  pyrophosphate  of 
iron  are  not  true  chemical  compounds,  but  mixtures  of 
variable  composition. 

Ferric  Hypophosphite  (Fe(PH2O2)3;  Molecular  Weight, 
25°-5)« — This  is  a  grayish- white  powder,  obtained  by 
adding  to  a  solution  of  ferric  chlorid  a  solution  of  sodium 
hypophosphite,  washing,  and  drying. 

Ferrous  lodid  (FeI2;  Molecular  Weight,  307.5),  Fer- 
rous Bromid  (FeBr2;  Molecular  Weight,  215.5).— These 
substances  are  prepared  by  the  action  of  iodin  and 
bromin  respectively  upon  metallic  iron.  They  are  of 
light  green  color;  and  the  former  compound  is  official  as 
syrup  of  ferrous  iodid,  containing  5  per  cent,  of  FeI2,  and 
also  as  pills  of  ferrous  iodid,  containing  i  gr.,  coated  with 
balsam  of  tolu,  to  prevent  oxidation. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Tonic,  alterative, 
diuretic,  and  emmenagogue.  Used  in  anemia,  syphilis, 
skin  affections,  and  amenorrhea.  Dose:  syrup,  5  to  30 
minims;  pills,  i  to  2,  three  times  daily. 

Scale  Salts  of  Iron. — There  are  a  number  of  iron 
salts,  official,  existing  in  the  form  of  thin  transparent 
scales,  as  the  citrate,  citrate  of  iron  and  ammonium, 


MANGANESE  93 

iron  and  potassium  tartrate,  iron  and  ammonium  tar- 
trate,  phosphate,  and  the  pyrophosphate.  These  are 
made  by  dissolving  ferric  hydroxid  (q.  v.)  in  the  respec- 
tive acids  or  acid  salts,  as  in  the  case  of  the  double  iron 
compounds. 

Tests  of  Iron. — Ferrous  salts,  with  the  soluble  hy- 
droxids  and  carbonates,  produce  light  green  precipitates; 
with  potassium  ferricyanid,  a  blue  precipitate. 

Ferric  salts,  with  soluble  hydroxids  and  carbonates, 
produce  reddish-brown  precipitates  and  an  effervescence 
with  the  latter  class.  With  acetates  and  potassium 
sulphocyanid  blood-red  solutions  are  obtained.  With 
potassium  ferrocyanid  a  precipitate  of  Prussian  blue  is 
obtained.  Tannin  produces  black  precipitates,  and  for 
this  reason  iron  should  not  be  dispensed  with  astringent 
vegetable  substances. 

MANGANESE 

Symbol,  Mn;  Atomic  weight,  55. 

It  is  found  principally  as  the  dioxid.  It  forms  three 
classes  of  salts:  the  manganous,  which  are  pink  and 
bivalent;  the  manganic,  which  are  green  and  tetravalent; 
and  the  permanganates,  which  are  purple  and  play  the 
part  of  an  acid. 

Precipitated  Manganese  Dioxid  (MnO2;  Molecular 
Weight,  87). — The  native  Mn02  is  too  impure  for 
medicinal  use,  and  the  compound,  which  is  official,  is 
made  by  adding  to  NH4OH  a  solution  of  manganous 


94  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

sulphate,  MnSO4  and  H2O2,  and  thoroughly  washing  the 
precipitate. 

Medicinal  Properties. — Tonic  and  alterative.  Dose, 
3  to  10  gr. 

Manganese  Sulphate  (MnSO4;  Molecular  Weight, 
151)-— Prepared  by  the  action  of  H2S04  upon  the 
native  MnO2. 

MnO2    +    H2SO4     =     MnSO,    +    H2O    +    O 

Medicinal  Properties. — Tonic,  cholagogue,  cathartic, 
and  styptic.  Dose,  3  to  10  gr. 

Manganese  Hypophosphite  (Mn(PH2O2)2.H2O;  Molec- 
ular Weight,  203). — Made  by  adding  to  a  solution  of 
manganese  sulphate  a  solution  of  calcium  hypophosphite, 
and  separating  the  solution  from  the  precipitated  CaSO4, 
evaporating,  and  allowing  to  crystallize.  This  salt, 
which  is  of  a  pink  color,  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  the 
compound  syrup  of  the  hypophosphites. 

Potassium  Permanganate  (KMnO4;  Molecular  Weight, 
158).— Made  by  fusing  Mn02  with  KC1O3  and  K2C03. 
The  green  mass,  which  is  potassium  manganate,  is  dis- 
solved in  water,  filtered,  and  to  the  nitrate  H2SO4  is 
added.  Mn02  is  precipitated,  and  the  purplish-red 
solution  of  KMnO4  is  decanted,  evaporated,  and  crystal- 
lized. 

Properties. — This  is  a  powerful  oxidizing  agent,  dis- 
infectant, and  antiseptic.  It  must  not  be  mixed  with 
organic  matter,  as  it  is  reduced  by  the  latter,  in  the 


CHROMIUM  95 

absence  of  acids,  to  a  lower  form,  which  is  insoluble; 
in  the  presence  of  acids,  to  soluble  salts  of  manganese. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Disinfectant,  deodor- 
ant, antiseptic,  and  emmenagogue.  Dose,  2  to  5  gr., 
best  given  in  pills  or  tablets. 

Tests. — Manganese  compounds  produce  with  am- 
monium sulphid,  (NH4)2S,  a  flesh-colored  precipitate  of 
MnS.  Fused  with  potassium  nitrate  and  carbonate,  a 
green  mass  is  produced. 

CHROMIUM 

Symbol,  Cr;  Atomic  weight,  52;  Valence,  2,  4,  6. 

The  name  chromium  is  given  to  this  metal  from 
chromuSj  color,  owing  to  the  fact  that  the  compounds 
of  it  are  highly  colored.  It  is  found  as  chrome  iron. 
It  forms  three  classes  of  compounds:  two  in  which  they 
are  basic,  and  one  in  which  the  acidic  property  pre- 
dominates. 

Chromium  Trioxid  (CrO3;  Molecular  Weight,  100). — 
This  compound  was  formerly  called  chromic  acid.  It 
is  the  anhydrid  of  true  chromic  acid,  H2CRO4.  (See 
foot-note,  page  39.)  It  exists  in  the  form  of  purplish- 
red  crystals,  very  soluble  in  water,  with  which  it  forms 
chromic  acid.  It  is  one  of  the  most  powerful  oxidizing 
agents.  Under  no  circumstances  should  it  be  mixed 
with  organic  matter.  In  contact  with  alcohol,  ether,  or 
glycerin  violent  reaction  occurs,  from  the  liberation  of 
oxygen,  even  setting  fire  to  it. 


96  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Uses. — Externally  as  escharotic,  astringent,  and  dis- 
infectant. Never  use  with  cotton  tampon  or  camel's- 
hair  pencil,  but  with  a  glass  brush,  protecting  the 
healthy  part  by  a  dam  of  petrolatum. 

Potassium  Dichromate  (K2Cr207;  Molecular  Weight, 
294). — This  is  found  in  commerce  in  the  form  of  orange- 
red  crystals.  It  is  poisonous,  irritant,  and  caustic.  It 
is  seldom  given  internally,  but  when  used  as  an  altera- 
tive is  given  in  doses  of  £  gr.  Poisoning  is  marked  by 
violent  irritation  and  corrosive  condition.  Give  alkaline 
carbonates,  emetics,  demulcent  drinks,  and  albumin. 

Chromium  Sulphate  (Cr2(S04)3;  Molecular  Weight, 
292). — This  occurs  in  emerald-green  scales,  soluble  in 
water,  and  has  recently  come  into  use  as  a  remedial 
agent. 

Tests  of  Chromium. — As  chromates  or  dichromates: 
Add  to  the  solution  of  the  suspected  substance  a  few 
drops  of  H2SO4  and  H202,  followed  by  a  layer  of  ether. 
Shake;  the  ethereal  layer  will  turn  blue,  due  to  the 
formation  of  perchromic  acid. 

With  soluble  lead  salts,  a  yellow  precipitate  of  lead 
chromate  is  formed,  PbCrO4. 

Basic  chromium  compounds:  With  NH4OH,  a  green 
precipitate  of  chromium  hydroxid  is  produced,  Cr(OH)3. 

NICKEL 

Symbol,  Ni;  Atomic  weight,  58. 


ZINC  97 

COBALT 

Symbol,  Co;  Atomic  weight,  58. 

The  salts  of  these  metals  are  of  some  chemical  and 
industrial  importance,  but  practically  do  not  enter  to 
any  extent  into  the  domain  of  medicine.  Nickel,  in  the 
metallic  state,  is  principally  used  as  a  protective  for 
other  metals.  The  salts  of  nickel  are  green,  while  those 
of  cobalt  are  pink. 

zmc 

Symbol,  Zn;  Atomic  weight,  65;  Valence,  2. 

Metallic  zinc  is  a  bluish-white  metal,  soluble  in  dilute 
acids  and  alkalis,  liberating  hydrogen  in  both  instances. 
It  is  found  as  the  sulphid  and  carbonate,  and  also,  in 
combination,  as  the  silicate. 

Zinc  Oxid,  Zinc  White  (ZnO;  Molecular  Weight,  81). 
—This  is  a  tasteless  white  powder,  insoluble  in  water, 
but  freely  in  acids,  with  which  it  produces  salts.    Ob- 
tained by  calcination  of  the  carbonate: 
ZnCO3     =     ZnO    +     CO2 

Uses. — Astringent,  desiccant,  and  antispasmodic  in 
doses  of  i  to  5  gr. 

The  ointment  of  zinc  oxid  is  official,  containing  20  per 
cent,  of  it. 

Zinc  Sulphate,  White  Vitriol  (ZnS04.7H2O;  Molecular 
Weight,  287). — Made  by  dissolving  metallic  zinc  or  the 
oxid  in  H2SO4: 

ZnO    +    H3SO,     =     ZnS04    +    HaO 


98  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

This  occurs  in  small  white  crystals,  resembling  Epsom 
salts,  for  which  it  is  sometimes  mistaken.  It  is  very 
soluble  in  water. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Tonic  and  astringent 
in  doses  of  i  to  3  gr.  As  an  emetic,  10  to  30  gr. 

Zinc  Chlorid  (ZnCl2;  Molecular  Weight,  135).— This 
is  a  highly  deliquescent  salt  made  by  the  action  of  HC1 
upon  metallic  zinc. 

Zn    +     2HC1     +    ZnCl2    +     2H 

Uses. — It  is  astringent  and  escharotic  and  largely  used 
as  an  embalming  fluid.  It  has  been  for  a  long  time 
highly  recommended  as  a  disinfectant,  but  recent  re- 
searches have  failed  to  make  such  claim  good. 

Zinc  Carbonate,  Precipitated  Carbonate  of  Zinc  (ZnCO3; 
Molecular  Weight,  125). — Made  by  adding  to  a  solution 
of  zinc  sulphate  a  solution  of  sodium  carbonate: 

ZnS04    +     Na2CO3     =     ZnCO3     +    Na2SO4 

It  possesses  properties  similar  to  the  oxid. 

Zinc  Bromid  (ZnBr2,  Molecular  Weight,  225),  Zinc 
lodid  (ZnI2;  Molecular  Weight,  317). — These  salts  are 
made  by  adding  their  respective  acids  to  zinc  oxid  or 
carbonate.  Their  medicinal  properties  are  very  similar 
to  those  of  the  iodids  and  bromids  of  the  other  metals. 

Zinc  Acetate  (ZnCCsHsC^^HgO;  Molecular  Weight, 
219). — Made  by  dissolving  zinc  oxid  in  acetic  acid, 
evaporating,  and  crystallizing. 


LEAD  99 

Medicinal  Properties. — Astringent,  irritant,  and  emetic. 
Dose,  i  to  3  gr. 

Zinc  Valerate. — This  compound,  possessing  the  odor 
of  valeric  acid,  is  an  antispasmodic  and  nervine,  best 
administered  in  pills  or  cachets  in  doses  of  i  to  3  gr. 

Zinc  Phenolsulphonate  (Zn(C6H604S)2.8H2O;  Molec- 
ular Weight,  555). — This  is  an  antiseptic,  used  as  a 
substitute  for  phenol;  soluble  in  water  and  alcohol. 

Tests  of  Zinc.— Solutions  of  zinc  will  give  white  pre- 
cipitates with  H2S,  (NH4)2S,  and  (NH4)2CO3. 

With  NH4OH,  gelatinous  precipitate,  soluble  in  an 
excess  of  the  reagent. 

LEAD 

Symbol,  Pb;  Atomic  weight,  206;  Valence,  2. 

The  principal  ore  of  lead  is  galena,  PbS,  but  lead  is 
also  found  as  the  carbonate.  It  is  a  very  soft  metal 
and  can  be  cut  with  a  knife.  It  is  soluble  in  HNOs 
and  acetic  acids.  Other  acids  have  but  little  effect 
upon  lead.  It  is  used  for  water-pipes,  which,  through 
the  action  of  the  contained  oxygen  of  the  water,  become 
coated  with  oxid,  and  this,  by  further  action  of  water, 
is  converted  into  the  hydroxid,  which  is  slightly  soluble. 
Another  source  of  such  contamination  is  due  to  CO2, 
nitrites,  and  nitrates  that  may  be  contained  in  the 
water.  Workers  in  lead  or  paint  factories  are  fre- 
quently affected  by  it.  Great  care  should  be  exercised 
in  handling  lead  compounds,  and  the  inhalation  of  them 
should  be  avoided. 


100  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Factory  commissions  of  several  States  have  taken  up 
this  matter,  and  have  shown  how  the  lives  of  the  em- 
ployees can  be  protected  by  proper  care. 

Toxicology. — Chronic  poisoning  by  lead  is  charac- 
terized by  indigestion,  colic,  and  constipation,  with 
partial  paralysis  of  the  extensor  muscles  of  the  fore- 
arm, palsy  and  wrist-drop,  and  by  a  blue  line,  from 
deposition  of  lead  sulphid,  PbS,  on  the  gums.  The 
treatment  consists  of  clearing  out  the  alimentary  canal 
with  magnesium  sulphate,  which  acts  both  as  a  cathartic 
and  an  antidote,  forming  the  insoluble  lead  sulphate, 
PbS04.  Potassium  chlorate  or  iodid  should  also  be 
given  to  eliminate  the  lead  from  the  system.  Acute 
lead-poisoning  is  similar  to  the  above,  but  more  pro- 
nounced in  its  activity. 

Lead  Oxid,  Litharge  (PbO;  Molecular  Weight,  222).— 
Usually  obtained,  as  a  by-product,  by  heating  lead  with 
air.  It  is  a  yellowish,  amorphous  powder,  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  lead  salts,  for  making  the  glaze 
on  pottery  ware,  and  as  a  dryer  in  paints.  When 
boiled  with  a  solution  of  lead  acetate  it  forms  the  solu- 
tion of  lead  subacetate,  or  Goulard's  extract,  a  diluted 
solution  of  which  is  known  as  "lead-water." 

Red  lead  (PbsC^)  is  a  red  powder  used  in  paints,  and 
has  been  shown  to  be  composed  of  PbO  and  PbO2. 

Lead  Carbonate,  White  Lead;  Flake  White  (2PbC03.- 
Pb(OH)2;  Molecular  Weight,  772).— The  native  car- 
bonate of  lead  has  the  formula  PbCO3,  but  from  the 


LEAD  101 

formula  of  the  above  compound  it  will  be  seen  that  it 
is  a  mixture  of  both  the  carbonate  and  hydroxid.  Its 
principal  use  is  as  a  pigment  and  as  a  basis  for  other 
paints.  It  was  once  official,  used  as  a  dusting-powder 
and  as  an  ointment.  »•;*•>  • 

Lead  Nitrate  (Pb(NO3)2;  Molecular-  Weight,  330).-: 
Made  by  dissolving  either  metallic .l^ad  toritJte'ffld&i^' 

HN03: 

PbO    +     2HNO3     =     Pb(NO3)2     +    H2O 

Its  principal  use,  chemically,  is  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  other  lead  compounds. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Astringent,  dis- 
cutient,  and  deodorizer. 

Lead  Acetate,  Sugar  of  Lead  (Pb(C2H3O2)2.3H20; 
Molecular  Weight,  378). — Made  by  dissolving  PbO 
in  dilute  acetic  acid,  evaporating,  and  crystallizing.  It 
occurs  in  large  colorless  crystals,  soluble  in  water.  It 
has  a  styptic  and  sweet  taste;  whence  its  name,  "sugar 
of  lead." 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Internally,  astringent 
and  sedative,  in  doses  of  i  to  4  gr.,  usually  combined 
with  opium.  Externally,  astringent  in  contusions  and 
sprains.  It  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  the  solution  of 
lead  sub  acetate;  and  also  for  making  lead  plaster,  by 
adding  to  a  solution  of  it  a  solution  of  Castile  soap, 
thoroughly  washing  with  hot  water  the  mass  obtained, 
and  forcing  out  any  retained  water  by  kneading.  From 
the  lead  plaster  the  diachylon  ointment  is  made,  and  the 


102  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

plaster  is  used  as  the  basis  of  most  of  the  other  official 
plasters. 

Lead  lodid  (PbI2;  Molecular  Weight,  458).— This  is  a 
heavy,  yellow,  insoluble  powder,  prepared  by  adding  to 
a  sojution  of  lead  nitrate  a  solution  of  potassium  iodid, 
washing,  and  drying;,. 

.       Pb(i\03)a;  &    2KI     =     Pbl,    +     2KNO3 

Medicinal  Properties. — Resolvent,  given  in  doses  of 
i  to  4  gr.,  in  pills,  and  also  used  externally  as  an  oint- 
ment. 

Tests  of  Lead.— H2S  and  (NH4)2S  produce  a  black 
precipitate  of  PbS. 

Solution  of  KI  produces  a  yellow  precipitate  of  Pbl2. 

Solution  of  potassium  dichromate,  K2Cr2O7,  produces 
a  yellow  precipitate  of  lead  chromate,  PbCrO4. 

COPPER 

Symbol,  Cu;  Atomic  weight,  63;  Valence,  2. 

Copper  is  the  only  metal  of  a  red  color.  It  is  slowly 
oxidized  by  air  at  ordinary  temperature,  but  when  heated 
forms  the  black  oxid.  In  moist  air  it  becomes  coated 
with  a  layer  of  the  subcarbonate.  It  is  acted  upon  by 
HNO3,  but  the  other  acids,  in  the  cold,  have  practically 
no  effect  upon  it.  It  is  a  good  conductor  of  heat  and 
electricity.  It  is  found  in  the  metallic  state  and  also 
in  combination  with  sulphur.  It  forms  alloys  with  a 
number  of  the  metals,  the  most  common  of  which  are 
brass  (composed  of  copper  and  zinc);  another  alloy  is 


COPPER  103 

bronze  (copper,  zinc,  and  tin).  It  forms  two  classes  of 
compounds,  the  cuprous  and  cupric. 

Cuprous  Oxid,  Red  or  Suboxid  of  Copper  (Cu2O;  Mo- 
lecular Weight,  142). — It  is  formed  when  cupric  oxid  is 
heated  with  carbon  or  organic  matter;  or  when  an  alkaline 
solution  of  copper  is  heated  in  the  presence  of  some  or- 
ganic matter,  notably  grape-sugar  or  glucose.  In 
testing  urine  for  glucose,  using  Fehling's  solution,  the 
red  precipitate  produced  is  cuprous  oxid.  In  the  arts, 
cuprous  oxid  is  used  in  making  red  glass. 

Copper  Nitrate  (Cu(NO3)2;  Molecular  Weight,  187).— 
This  is  a  green  crystalline  salt,  obtained  by  the  action 
of  HN03  upon  Cu. 

3Cu    +    8HNO3     =     3Cu(NO3)3     =     2NO    +    4H2O 

Copper  Sulphate,  Blue  Stone;  Blue  Vitriol  (CuSO4.- 
5H2O;  Molecular  Weight,  249). — Copper  sulphate  is  the 
only  official  copper  salt.  It  occurs  in  large,  trans- 
parent, deep-blue  crystals,  readily  soluble  in  water. 
It  is  formed  by  the  action  of  concentrated,  hot  H2SO4 
upon  copper. 

Medicinal  Properties. — Astringent,  tonic,  irritant, 
escharotic,  and  emetic,  and  is  used  as  an  antidote  to 
phosphorus-poisoning.  Dose,  J  to  J  gr. ;  for  phosphorus- 
poisoning,  from  2  to  10  gr. 

Copper  Carbonate. — This  is  the  double  carbonate  and 
hydroxid  of  copper,  occurring  as  a  heavy,  light-green 
powder,  made  by  the  interaction  between  sodium  car- 


104  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

bonate  and  copper  sulphate,  and  is  principally  used  as  a 
paint. 

Copper-poisoning. — Contrary  to  the  popular  belief, 
copper  is  not  poisonous  in  small  doses,  although  in  large 
amounts  it  is.  It  produces  vomiting,  purging,  colic, 
tenesmus,  and  suppression  of  urine. 

Treatment. — Use  stomach-pump  and  give  albumin, 
either  as  the  white  of  eggs  or  milk.  Reduced  iron  may 
be  given  or  even  a  very  dilute  solution  of  potassium  ferro- 
cyanid,  K4Fe(CN)6,  followed  by  emetics  or  stomach- 
pump. 

Tests  of  Copper. — NH4OH  produces  with  copper 
solutions  a  bluish-white  precipitate  of  Cu(OH)2,  soluble 
in  an  excess  of  the  reagent  to  a  deep  azure-blue  solution, 
due  to  the  formation  of  a  cupro-ammonium  compound 
(very  characteristic). 

Potassium  ferrocyanid  produces,  even  in  very  dilute 
solutions  of  copper,  a  reddish-brown  precipitate  of  cop- 
per ferrocyanid. 

Metallic  iron,  thoroughly  cleaned  of  grease,  when 
dipped  into  acid  solutions  of  copper,  becomes  coated 
with  a  metallic  deposit  of  copper. 

BISMUTH 

Symbol,  Bi;  Atomic  weight,  207. 

Bismuth  is  a  silver-gray  metal  with  a  pinkish  cast, 
quite  brittle,  and  possesses  a  crystalline  structure.  Its 
most  characteristic  property  is  its  formation,  with  some 


BISMUTH  105 

of  the  metals,  of  alloys  that  fuse  at  exceedingly  low 
temperatures;  some  as  low  as  60.5°  C.  (140°  F.).  The 
metal  also  differs  from  the  general  rule  of  expansion 
and  contraction  by  expanding  in  volume  upon  cooling. 
Solutions  of  bismuth  salts  are  also  characterized,  when 
not  too  acid,  by  precipitating  as  insoluble  basic  salts 
when  thrown  into  an  excess  of  water. 

Bismuth  Subnitrate  (Approximate  Formula,  Bi(OH)2- 
NO3). — When  metallic  bismuth  is  acted  upon  by  HNOs, 
the  normal  nitrate  is  produced: 

Bi     +    4HNO3     =     Bi(NO3)3    +     NO     +     2H2O 

When  this  solution  is  poured  into  a  large  quantity  of 
water,  bismuth  subnitrate  is  precipitated,  which  is  of 
variable  composition. 

Bi(NO3)3    +     2H2O     =     Bi(OH)2NO3    +     2HNO3 

Properties. — This  is  a  heavy,  white,  tasteless  powder, 
which  imparts  an  acid  reaction  to  water,  due  to  its 
readiness  in  giving  up  its  nitric  acid  radicle.  Hence, 
bismuth  subnitrate,  dispensed  with  carbonates  or  bi- 
carbonates  in  aqueous  mixtures,  liberates  CC>2,  and  care 
must  be  taken  to  see  that  the  reaction  is  complete  before 
corking  the  container,  or  an  explosion  may  occur. 

Bismuth    Subcarbonate,    Pearl    White    ((BiO)2CO3; 
Molecular  Weight,  506). — If  a  solution  of  the  normal 
nitrate  is  added  to  a  solution  of  sodium  carbonate,  the 
subcarbonate  is  precipitated: 
2Bi(N03)3    +     3Na2C03     =     (BiO),CO3    +    6NaNO3    +     2C02 


io6  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

This  enters  largely  into  the  manufacture  of  the  various 
cosmetics  and  face  preparations  with  which  the  market 
is  flooded. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Both  the  subnitrate 
and  subcarbonate  are  similar  in  medicinal  behavior. 
They  are  sedatives,  astringents,  and  act  mechanically 
by  coating  the  mucosa  with  a  protective  film.  Dose, 
5  to  30  gr. 

The  latter  is  also  used  extensively  in  #-ray  work,  as  it 
retards,  to  some  extent,  the  passage  of  the  rays,  and 
permits  the  radiologist  to  gain  a  proper  conception  of  the 
conditions  of  the  alimentary  tract. 

Bismuth  Citrate  (Bi(C6H5O7);  Molecular  Weight,  396). 
— Made  by  boiling  a  solution  of  nitric  acid  with  bismuth 
subnitrate  until  a  part  of  the  precipitate  is  wholly  soluble 
in  NH4OH,  with  which  it  forms  the  double  bismuth  and 
ammonium  citrate,  which  is  the  only  soluble  bismuth 
salt,  and  which  enters  into  the  preparation  of  elixir  of 
bismuth. 

Bismuth  Subsalicylate  (Approximate  Formula,  Bi- 
(OH)2C7H5O3).— Made  by  digesting  salicylic  acid,  HC7- 
H5O3,  with  bismuth  hydroxid,  Bi(OH)3. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — It  is  an  internal 
antiseptic  and  astringent,  passing  through  the  stomach 
unchanged,  but  being  decomposed  in  the  intestinal  tract. 
Dose,  5  to  15  gr. 

Bismuth  Subgallate,  Dermatol  (Approximate  Formula, 
Bi(OH)2C7H5O5).— Made  by  digesting  bismuth  sub- 


SILVER  107 

nitrate  in  a  solution  of  gallic  acid.  It  occurs  as  a  canary- 
yellow  powder,  odorless,  tasteless,  and  insoluble  in  water 
or  alcohol.  It  is  decomposed  by  acids,  liberating  gallic 
acid. 

Medicinal  Properties. — Antiseptic,  sedative,  astringent, 
and  desiccant.  Dose,  5  to  30  gr. 

Tests  of  Bismuth. — Solutions  of  bismuth  produce 
white  precipitates  of  bismuth  hydroxid,  Bi(OH)3,  with 
the  hydroxids  of  ammonium,  sodium,  and  potassium. 
With  solutions  of  KI,  a  brown  precipitate  of  bismuth 
iodid,  BiI3,  soluble  hi  an  excess  of  KI. 

SILVER 

Symbol,  Ag;  Atomic  weight,  107. 

While  silver  is  occasionally  found  in  the  native  condi- 
tion, it  more  frequently  occurs  as  the  sulphid,  usually 
associated  with  lead.  It  is  a  brilliant  white  metal,  very 
ductile  and  tenacious.  When  exposed  to  air  containing 
sulphids  it  becomes  covered  with  a  thin  film  of  silver 
sulphid.  It  is  insoluble  in  HC1.  H2SO4  and  HNO3 
dissolve  it.  Caustic  alkalis  have  no  effect  upon  it. 

Silver  Nitrate  (AgNO3;  Molecular  Weight,  169).— 
This  is  prepared  by  dissolving  metallic  silver  in  HNO3, 
evaporating,  and  crystallizing: 

3Ag    +     4HN03     =     3AgN03     +    NO     +     2H2O. 

Silver  nitrate  is  exceedingly  soluble  in  water;  solu- 
tions containing  as  high  as  75  per  cent,  of  the  salt  can  be 
prepared.  When  exposed  to  light  in  the  presence  of 
organic  matter,  it  decomposes  into  metallic  silver  and 


108  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

HNO3.  When  placed  upon  tissues,  it  first  turns  them 
white,  due  to  the  silver  chlorid  formed  by  the  interaction 
of  the  AgN03  and  the  NaCl  contained  in  the  tissues, 
and  finally  black,  from  further  reduction  to  metallic 
silver  and  the  oxid.  Stains  may  be  removed,  if  not  left 
too  long  after  the  application  of  the  salt,  by  applying 
iodin,  forming  silver  iodid,  Agl,  and  then  washing  with 
a  solution  of  sodium  thiosulphate,  Na2S2O3. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Alterative,  stimu- 
lant, and  astringent;  given  in  doses  of  f  to  J  gr.,  in  pills 
made  with  cocoa-butter  or  kaolin  (q.  v.).  Externally 
it  is  a  superficial  escharotic. 

Silver  nitrate  is  also  used  in  indelible  ink,  for  hair- 
dyes,  and  for  photographic  purposes. 

Lunar  Caustic. — If  to  AgNO3  some  HC1  is  added  and 
then  fused,  a  hard  mass  is  obtained,  which  is  molded  into 
sticks,  which  are  not  as  brittle  as  AgNO3. 

Silver  Oxid  (Ag2O;  Molecular  Weight,  230).— Pre- 
pared by  addition  of  the  alkali  hydroxids  to  AgNO3. 
This  is  soluble  in  an  excess  of  NH4OH,  forming  a  com- 
pound which  possesses  explosive  properties. 

Silver  Cyanid  (AgCN;  Molecular  Weight,  133).— 
Made  by  passing  HCN  into  a  solution  of  AgN03. 

This  compound  is  used  for  the  extemporaneous  prep- 
aration of  HCN,  by  treating  it  with  the  required  quan- 
tity of  HC1  and  water,  and  separating  the  acid  from 
the  insoluble  AgCl: 

AgCN    +    HCl     =     HCN    +    AgCl 


MERCURY  109 

Silver  lodid  (Agl;  Molecular  Weight,  233).— Made 
by  double  decomposition  between  AgNO3  and  KI.  It 
is  used  in  photography. 

Toxicology.— Silver  salts  are  poisonous.  The  anti- 
dote is  NaCl,  forming  the  insoluble  AgCl,  followed  by 
emetics. 

Tests  of  Silver.— HC1  and  soluble  chlorids  produce, 
with  silver  salts,  a  white  precipitate  of  AgCl,  soluble  in 
NH4OH,  and  reprecipitated  by  HN03.  K2Cr2O7  gives 
a  reddish  precipitate,  with  silver  salts,  of  Ag2CrO4. 

MERCURY 

Symbol,  Hg;  Atomic  weight,  199;  Valence,  i,  2. 

Mercury  differs  from  all  other  metals  by  being  liquid 
at  ordinary  temperature.  It  is  found  principally  as 
cinnabar,  HgS.  It  is  of  silvery  white  appearance.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  13.59,  becoming  solid  at  — 40°  C.  or  F. 
When  pure,  it  remains  unaltered  in  air,  and  rolls  without 
leaving  streaks.  It  forms  amalgams  with  most  metals 
(none  with  iron),  and  is  not  affected  by  HC1  or  cold 
H2SO4.  HNOs  attacks  it  vigorously.  It  forms  two 
classes  of  compounds,  mercurous  and  mercuric;  the  for- 
mer milder  in  action,  and  the  latter  poisonous.  There 
are  several  medicinal  preparations  in  which  mercury 
exists  practically  in  the  metallic  condition:  Mercury 
with  chalk,  Hydrargyrum  cum  creta,  gray  powder,  con- 
taining 38  per  cent.;  Massa  hydrargyrum,  blue  mass, 
blue  pill,  containing  33  per  cent.;  Unguentum  hydrargy- 


no  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

rum;  Unguentum  hydrargyrum  dilutum,  Hue  ointment, 
33  per  cent.;  and  Emplastrum  hydrargyrum,  mercury 
plaster,  30  per  cent. 

Mercurous  Oxid,  Black  Oxid  of  Mercury  (Hg2O;  Mo- 
lecular Weight,  414). — When  a  mercurous  compound  is 
acted  upon  by  an  alkali,  except  ammonia,  mercurous 
oxid  is  obtained.  In  the  preparation  known  as  "Lotio 
nigra,"  or  black  wash,  mercurous  oxid  is  contained: 
2HgCl  +  Ca(OH)3  =  CaCl,  +  H&O  +  H2O 

Mercuric  Oxid  (HgO;  Molecular  Weight,  215). — 
In  the  U.  S.  P.  two  mercuric  oxids  are  official;  they  are 
of  the  same  chemical  composition,  but  differ  in  their 
physical  properties.  The  yellow  mercuric  oxid  is  made 
by  adding  to  a  solution  of  NaOH  a  solution  of  mercuric 
chlorid,  HgCl2,  washing,  and  drying  the  precipitate 
produced: 

HgCl2    +     2NaOH     =     HgO     +     2NaCl     +     H2O 

Red  mercuric  oxid,  red  precipitate,  is  formed  when 
mercuric  nitrate  is  heated: 

Hg(N03)3     =     HgO    +     2NO    +    03 

Mercurous  Chlorid,  Mild  Chlorid  of  Mercury;  Calomel 
(HgCl;  Molecular  Weight,  234). — The  chlorids  of  mer- 
cury are  made  by  the  process  of  sublimation,  which  con- 
sists of  vaporizing  a  solid  and  passing  the  vapor  into  a 
cooled  chamber,  where  it  is  condensed  to  a  powdery  con- 
dition. 

A  mixture  of  mercurous  sulphate  and  sodium  chlorid 


MERCURY  III 

are  sublimed,  the  mercurous  chlorid  formed,  being  vola- 
tile, passes  over,  leaving  sodium  sulphate  in  the  retort: 
Hg2SO4    +     2NaCl     =     2HgCl     =     Na3SO4 

As  there  is  a  possibility  of  the  calomel  being  con- 
taminated with  mercuric  chlorid,  it  is  washed  with 
water,  to  remove  any  mercuric  chlorid  it  may  contain. 
It  must  be  preserved  in  bottles  protected  from  light, 
as  it  is  decomposed  by  the  latter,  forming  mercury  and 
mercuric  chlorid. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Anthelmintic,  altera- 
tive, and  cholagogue.  Dose,  i  to  15  gr.  It  is  an 
ingredient  of  compound  cathartic  pills,  each  pill  contain- 
ing i  gr.  of  it. 

Mercuric  Chlorid,  Corrosive  Sublimate;  Corrosive 
Chlorid  of  Mercury  (HgCl2;  Molecular  Weight,  269). — 
This  is  made  by  a  process  similar  to  making  calomel, 
substituting  mercuric  sulphate  for  the  mercurous  sul- 
phate: 

HgSO4    +     2NaCl     =     HgCl2    +    Na2SO4 

It  is  a  heavy,  crystalline  solid,  soluble  in  16  parts  of 
water,  the  solubility  being  greatly  increased  by  addi- 
tion of  ammonium  chlorid.  The  antiseptic  tablets  of 
pharmacy  contain  7.3  gr.  of  mercuric  chlorid  and  7.7  gr. 
of  ammonium  chlorid.  One  tablet  dissolved  in  a  pint 
of  water  forms  a  solution  of  i  :  1000.  Mercuric  chlorid 
is  soluble  in  3  parts  of  alcohol  and  in  4  parts  of  ether. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Poisonous,  highly 
corrosive,  antiseptic,  alterative,  diuretic,  and  tonic. 


112  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Used  in  syphilis,  skin  affections,  and  rheumatism. 
Dose,  -fa  to  |  gr. 

Toxicology. — Poisoning  is  best  treated  with  albumin 
(one  egg  to  each  4  gr.),  followed  by  emetics  and  de- 
mulcent drinks.  In  the  absence  of  albumin,  solutions 
of  sodium  sulphate  or  magnesium  sulphate  may  be  given. 

Mercurous  lodid,  Yellow  lodid  of  Mercury;  Proto- 
iodid  of  Mercury  (Hgl;  Molecular  Weight,  325). — Made 
by  the  interaction  of  mercurous  nitrate  and  potassium 

iodid: 

HgCNCg     +    KI     =     Hgl    +    KN03 

It  is  a  bright  yellow,  amorphous  powder.  It  was 
formerly  called  green  iodid  of  mercury,  on  account  of  its 
color;  being  made  by  rubbing  mercury  and  iodin  together, 
in  the  presence  of  alcohol,  the  small  amount  of  uncom- 
bined  mercury  imparting  a  green  color  to  the  compound. 
Its  medicinal  properties  resemble  those  of  other  mer- 
curic compounds,  and  its  dose  is  f  to  i  gr. 

Mercuric  Iodid,  Red  Iodid  of  Mercury;  Biniodid  of 
Mercury  (HgI2;  Molecular  Weight,  451). — Made  by  mix- 
ing solutions  of  mercuric  chlorid  and  potassium  iodid  in 
exact  molecular  proportions,  as  mercuric  iodid  is  soluble 
in  an  excess  of  either  solution. 

HgCl,    +     2KI     =     Hgl,    +     2KC1 

Dose,  -fa  to  I  gr. 

Mercury  Nitrates. — Two  nitrates  of  mercury  exist. 
They  are  made  by  the  action  of  nitric  acid  upon  mer- 
cury. If  cold  dilute  nitric  acid  is  used  with  an  excess 


MERCURY  113 

of  mercury,  mercurous  nitrate  is  formed.     With  an  ex- 
cess of  strong  HNOs,  mercuric  nitrate  results: 

3Hg    +    8HN03     =     3Hg(N03)2    +     2ND    +    4H2O 

Solution  of  mercuric  nitrate  is  official,  contains  60  per 
cent,  by  weight  of  Hg(N03)2,  and  is  used  as  an  escha- 
rotic.  Ointment  of  mercuric  nitrate,  citrine  ointment,  con- 
tains about  11.5  per  cent,  of  Hg(NOs)2. 

Mercury  Subsulphate,  Turpeth  Mineral  (HgS04.- 
(HgO)2;  Molecular  Weight,  725). — This  was  formerly  ex- 
tensively used  as  an  emetic  for  children,  in  doses  of  2  to 
3  gr.  It  is  made  by  pouring  a  solution  of  mercury  bi- 
sulphate  into  water  and  washing  free  of  the  acid. 

Ammoniated  Mercury,  White  Precipitate  (NH2HgCl; 
Molecular  Weight,  250). — This  is  a  white,  pulverulent 
substance,  insoluble  in  water,  used  only  externally.  The 
ointment,  containing  10  per  cent.,  is  official.  Ammoni- 
ated mercury  is  made  by  adding  HgCl2  to  NH4OH: 

HgCl2    +     2NH4OH     =     NH7HgCl2    +    NH4C1    +     2H2O 

Tests  of  Mercury.— 

Mercuric  compounds.  Mercurous  compounds. 
Potassium   iodid  pro- 
duces  A  red  precipitate,  HgI2.    A    yellow    precipitate, 

Hgl. 

Sodium  or  potassium 

hydroxid  produces.  .A   yellow   precipitate,    A  black  precipitate, 
HgO.  Hg20. 

HC1  produces No  effect.  A  white  precipitate, 

HgCl. 

NH4OH  produces A    white    precipitate,    A  black  precipitate  of 

NH2HgCl.  mercurous     ammoni- 

ated  mercury. 


114  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

ARSENIC 

Symbol,  As;  Atomic  weight,  75;  Molecular  weight,  300. 

Although  arsenic  is  found  in  small  quantities  in  the 
native  state,  its  principal  source  is  the  sulphid.  It  ex- 
ists in  steel-gray,  crystalline  form,  with  a  metallic  luster, 
without  odor  or  taste,  insoluble  in  water.  By  HNO3 
it  is  converted  into  arsenic  acid,  HsAsO4. 

Arseniuretted  Hydrogen,  Arsine  (AsH3;  Molecular 
Weight,  78).  —  This  is  a  highly  poisonous,  colorless  gas, 
which  burns  with  a  bluish  flame,  producing  AsA  and 
H2O.  It  is  always  formed  when  nascent  hydrogen  comes 
in  contact  with  arsenic  or  its  compounds: 
i2H  +  As,O,  =  2AsH,  + 


Arsenic  Trioxid,  Arsenous  Oxid;  White  Arsenic 
(As2O3;  Molecular  Weight,  198).  —  This  substance  is 
usually  produced,  as  a  by-product,  during  the  manufac- 
ture of  the  metal  from  its  ores.  It  occurs  in  two  varie- 
ties: the  opaque,  or  crystalline,  and  the  vitreous,  or 
amorphous.  Very  slightly  soluble  in  water,  its  solu- 
bility is  increased  by  HC1.  Liquor  acidi  arsenosi,  solu- 
tion of  arsenous  acid,  contains  i  per  cent,  of  A^Os  in 
HC1  and  water.  (All  liquid  preparations  of  arsenic 
contain  i  per  cent,  of  the  arsenical  compound.) 

Solution  of  Potassium  Arsenite,  Fowler's  Solution.  — 
Made  by  boiling  As2O3  with  potassium  bicarbonate, 
KHCO3,  and  flavoring  and  coloring  with  compound 
spirits  of  lavender. 


ARSENIC  115 

Sodium  Arsenate  (Na2HAsO4.7H2O;  Molecular  Weight 
312). — Made  by  fusing  As2O3  with  Na^COs  and  NaNO3. 
A  one  per  cent,  solution  of  the  anhydrous  salt  is  official. 

Arsenic  lodid  (AsI3;  Molecular  Weight,  453). — This 
substance,  when  combined  with  mercuric  iodid  and 
water,  forms  Liquor  arsenii  et  hydrargyri  iodidi,  Donovan's 
solution,  containing  i  per  cent,  each  of  the  salts. 

Arsenic-poisoning. — Poisoning  by  arsenic  may  result 
from  a  number  of  causes.  Wall-paper  often  contains 
arsenic,  which  falls  off  and  is  inhaled.  Textile  sub- 
stances also  contain  it,  and  poisoning  may  arise  by  direct 
absorption  or  by  reduction  of  the  arsenical  compounds 
contained  in  them.  Arsenic  is  an  irritant,  and  symp- 
toms of  arsenic-poisoning  resemble  those  of  cholera: 
constriction  and  heat  of  the  fauces,  faintness,  nausea, 
burning  abdominal  pains,  thirst,  vomiting,  bloody  stools, 
and  suppression  of  urine. 

Toxicology. — The  stomach  should  be  washed  out, 
emetics,  followed  by  freshly  precipitated  ferric  hy- 
droxid  (q.  v.)  or  dialysed  iron,  which  forms  the  insoluble 
iron  arsenite,  followed  by  emetics. 

Tests  of  Arsenic. — H2S  produces,  in  acidified  solutions 
of  arsenic,  a  yellow  precipitate  of  arsenic  sulphid,  As2S3, 
soluble  in  (NH4)2S. 

Marsh's  Test. — Hydrogen  is  generated  in  a  flask  by 
the  action  of  H2SO4  upon  zinc.  After  having  ascer- 
tained the  absence  of  air  in  the  flask,  the  hydrogen  is 
ignited,  and  the  purity  of  the  chemicals  used  is  tested. 


Il6  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

The  suspected  liquid  is  then  added.  In  the  presence  of 
arsenic  the  flame  becomes  enlarged,  and  when  a  cold 
porcelain  surface  impinges  upon  the  flame,  it  will  deposit 
upon  the  porcelain  metallic  spots.  As  spots  produced 
by  antimony  are  quite  similar  in  appearance,  they  are 
differentiated  by  a  solution  of  chlorinated  soda  or  Labar- 
raque's  solution,  which  dissolves  the  arsenic  spots,  but 
not  those  of  antimony.  The  arsenic  spots  are  further 
confirmed  by  acidifying  the  solution  in  which  the  arsenic 
is  dissolved,  and  passing  H2S  into  it,  a  yellow  precipitate 
being  formed  if  arsenic  is  present. 

NH4OH,  to  which  copper  sulphate  has  been  added 
until  the  precipitate  first  produced  no  longer  dissolves, 
and  filtered,  produces,  with  arsenic,  a  precipitate  of 
Scheele's  green. 

A  solution  of  ammonio-nitrate  of  silver  gives  a  yellow 
precipitate  with  arsenic. 

ANTIMONY 

Symbol,  Sb;  Atomic  weight,  119. 

Antimony  is  found  as  black  antimony  sulphid,  Sb2S3. 
It  is  a  bluish- white  metal  of  a  crystalline  structure,  sol- 
uble in  HC1.  It  is  used  in  the  arts  as  type  and  Babbitt 
metal. 

Antimony  Sulphid  (Sb2S3;  Molecular  Weight,  334).— 
This  occurs  native,  and  is  used  in  the  preparation  of 
"horse  powders."  Under  the  name  of  sulphureted 
antimony,  or  kermes-mineral,  a  substance  is  known 


ANTIMONY  117 

which  is  an  orange-red  powder  and  consists  of  a  mixture 
of  sulphid  and  oxid  of  antimony.  This  is  a  diaphoretic 
and  is  given  in  doses  of  i  to  2  gr. 

Antimony  Chlorid,  Butter  of  Antimony  (SbClsj  Molec- 
ular Weight,  224). — This  is  an  escharotic,  obtained  by 
boiling  Sb2S3  with  HC1. 

Antimony  Oxid  (Sb203;  Molecular  Weight,  286).— 
A  white,  insoluble  powder,  entering  into  the  prepara- 
tion of  Pulvis  antimonialis,  or  James'  powder.  It  is 
made  by  pouring  a  solution  of  SbCls  into  water,  and 
heating  the  oxychlorid  formed  with  Na^COs. 

Antimony  and  Potassium  Tartrate,  Tartar  Emetic 
(2K(SbO)C4H406.H2O);  Molecular  Weight,  662).— This 
is  the  most  important  medicinal  antimony  compound. 
It  is  prepared  by  boiling  potassium  bitartrate,  or  cream 
of  tartar,  with  freshly  prepared  antimony  oxid: 

Sb2O3    +     2KHC4HA     =     2K(SbO)C4H406    +    H2O 

It  exists  in  small  crystals,  soluble  in  16  parts  of  water 
and  insoluble  in  alcohol.  Wine  antimony  contains  about 
2  gr.  to  the  fluidounce.  Compound  syrup  of  squills,  or 
hive  syrup,  contains  about  i  gr.  to  the  fluidounce. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Sedative,  alterative, 
expectorant,  and  emetic.  Dose,  -^  to  J  gr.,  depending 
upon  the  purpose  intended. 

Toxicology. — Tartar  emetic  is  extensively  used  in  the 
numerous  "ant  destroyers,"  which  are  frequent  sources 
of  poisoning.  In  its  effects  it  is  similar  to  arsenic,  but 


Il8  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

of  a  milder  type.  As  little  as  2  gr.  have  produced  death. 
Treatment  similar  to  arsenic,  but  with  the  addition  of 
tannic  acid  or  substances  containing  it,  as  tea,  etc. 

Tests  of  Antimony. — H2S  produces,  with  acidified 
antimony  solution,  an  orange-colored  precipitate  of  the 
sulphid,  Sb2S3,  soluble  in  (NH4)2S. 

Under  Arsenic,  Marsh's  Test  was  given,  with  points  of 
distinction  between  arsenic  and  antimony. 


PART   II 


CHEMISTRY  OF  CARBON  AND  ITS  COMPOUNDS 


THE  term  "Organic  Chemistry,"  by  which  these  com- 
pounds are  commonly  alluded  to,  is  a  survival  from  the 
former  belief  that  these  substances  were  produced  by  the 
mysterious  power,  "vital  force,"  which  is  now  demon- 
strated by  the  large  number  of  these  substances  daily 
produced  in  chemical  laboratories  to  have  no  bearing 
upon  it.  The  number  of  carbon  compounds  is  very 
large.  It  is  estimated  that  there  are  150,000  of  them 
known  at  the  present  time,  and  their  number  is  rapidly 
increasing  as  our  knowledge  of  the  subject  progresses. 
The  elements  entering  into  them  are  principally  carbon 
and  hydrogen,  although  oxygen  is  also  an  important 
component.  In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  there  is  also 
nitrogen,  and  other  compounds  may  contain  sulphur, 
phosphorus,  chlorin,  iodin,  bromin,  and  even  the  metals 
are  combined  with  some  of  them. 

The  carbon  compounds  are  derived  from  all  sources. 
From  the  animal  kingdom  there  is  obtained  the  pro- 
teins, urea,  fats,  etc.;  the  vegetable  kingdom  furnishes 

119 


120  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

sugars,  starches,  alkaloids,  glucosids,  etc.;  the  mineral 
kingdom  supplies  petroleum,  hydrocarbon,  gases,  and 
coal-tar. 

Identification  of  Carbon  Compounds. — The  non-vola- 
tile substances  are  readily  recognized  by  the  fact  that 
when  highly  heated  they  char,  due  to  the  destruction  of 
the  compound,  leaving  carbon  as  a  blackened  mass. 
In  some  instances  the  addition  of  sulphuric  acid  is  ample 
to  show  their  presence;  the  dehydrating  property  of  the 
acid  removes  hydrogen  and  oxygen,  and  the  blackened 
carbon  remains.  In  most  cases  it  becomes  necessary  to 
heat  the  substance  with  copper  oxid,  which  furnishes 
oxygen,  producing  C02,  which,  when  passed  into  Ca- 
(OH)2,  becomes  cloudy. 

For  convenience  of  study  the  carbon  compounds  are 
divided  into  groups  which  have  characteristics  in 
common. 

Hydrocarbons. — As  the  name  implies,  these  are  com- 
posed of  carbon  and  hydrogen  only.  They  are  divided 
into  three  main  classes  or  groups:  The  "aliphatic,"  or 
"open  chain";  the  "aromatic,"  or  "closed  chain";  the 
"terpenes."  Each  of  these  groups  are  further  sub- 
divided. 

Hydrocarbons  are  graphically  shown  to  exist  in  chains, 
which  are  series  of  multivalent  atoms  held  together  by 
one  or  more  affinities.  The  linkage  may  be  shown  as 
existing  with  one  valence  between  each  carbon,  as  in 
"saturated  hydrocarbons"  or  "paraffins": 


CHEMISTRY  OF  CARBON  AND  ITS  COMPOUNDS     121 


H 
H—  C—  H, 
H 

H    H 
H—  C—  C—  H, 
H    H 

H    H    H 

H—  C—  C—  C—  H, 

1      1      1 
H    H    H 

CH< 

Methane. 

C2H, 

Ethane. 

C,H8 

Propane. 

HHHH  HHHHH 

I      I      1      I  I      I      I      I      I 

H—  C—  C—  C—  C—  H,  H—  C—  C—  C—  C—  C—  H,  etc. 

I      I      I      I 
HHHH 

C4H2o 


I      I      1      I  I      I      I      I      I 

H—  C—  C—  C—  C—  C—  H, 

I  I      I      I      I      I 

HHHHH 


Butane.  Pentane. 


or  with  double  linking,  as  in  the  ethylene  hydrocarbons, 
or"olefins": 


H    H 
C  =  C—  H, 

& 

H   H    H 

1      1      1 
C=C—  C—  H, 

H          H 

HHHH 

1      1      1 
C  =  C—  C—  C—  H 

1            I     1 
H          H    H 

C,H4 

C3H6 

C3H8 

Ethene  or  ethylene.        Propene  or  propylene.  Butene  or  butylene. 

It  will  be  noticed  that  each  carbon  in  the  above  ex- 
amples has  four  valencies,  and  that  in  the  "ethylene" 
series  one  of  the  carbons  is  linked  to  the  other  by  two 
bonds,  while  in  the  "paraffin"  series  each  carbon  is 
linked  to  the  other  by  a  single  bond.  In  the  acetylene 
hydrocarbons  the  linkage  is  triple: 

H  H  H        H 

II  II 

C=C  CEEC—  C—  H 


C2H,  C3H, 

Acetylene.  Allylene. 


122  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

HYDROCARBONS  OF  THE  MARSH-GAS  OR  PARAFFIN  SERIES 

(the  Saturated  Hydrocarbons) 

General  Formula,  CnH2n-J~2. 
Name.  Formula.  Radicle.  Formula. 

Methane CH4  Methyl (CH3) 

Ethane C2H6  Ethyl (C2H5) 

Propane C3H8  Propyl (C3H7) 

Butane C4H10  Buty (C4H9) 

Pentane C5H12  Pentyl (C5Hn) 

Hexane C6H14  Hexyl (C6H13) 

This  series  could  be  continued  almost  indefinitely,  as 
compounds  containing  as  many  as  60  carbons  are  known. 
It  will  be  observed  that  there  is  a  common  difference  of 
CH2  between  any  member  of  this  series  and  the  pre- 
ceding or  succeeding  one.  The  term  homologous  is  given 
to  a  series  possessing  this  difference,  and  each  member 
of  the  series  is  regarded  as  the  homologue  of  the  others. 

It  will  also  be  observed  that  the  formula  of  any  mem- 
ber of  the  series  can  be  readily  ascertained  from  the 
general  formula.  For  instance,  to  find  the  formula  of 
pentane,  it  is  only  necessary  to  substitute  in  the  general 
formula,  CnH2n  +  2,  the  value  of  "n,"  which  for  pen- 
tane, the  fifth  member  of  the  series,  is  5 ;  thus : 

C5H2(5)     +     2; 
or  reducing, 

QH10    +    2    =    C6H12. 

Or  in  case  of  propane,  for  which  the  value  of  "n"  is  3, 

we  would  have 

C,H6    +    2    =    C.H.. 


HALOGEN  DERIVATIVES,  OR  HALOID  ETHERS      123 

The  ending  of  the  above  hydrocarbons  is  "ane."  If  one 
or  more  hydrogens  are  removed,  radicles  will  be  pro- 
duced and  their  valence  corresponds  to  the  number 
thus  taken  away.  Where  but  one  H  has  been  taken 
away,  the  "ane"  of  the  hydrocarbon  is  replaced  by  "yl"; 
thus,  methane  produces  methyl. 

The  first  three  members  of  this  series  are  gases,  which, 
when  mixed  with  air  and  ignited,  combine  with  ex- 
plosive force.  The  higher  members  are  obtained  from 
petroleum,  and  are  found  in  such  commercial  substances 
as  rhigolene,  gasolene,  benzine  (petroleum  ether),  coal- 
oil,  petrolatum,  and  paraffin. 

The  official  petrolatum,  commonly  called  "vaselin," 
used  as  an  ointment,  contains  the  hydrocarbons  from 
Ci6H34  to  C20H42;  and  "paraffin,"  from  C24H5o  to  C27H56. 

HALOGEN  DERIVATIVES,  OR  HALOID  ETHERS 

These  compounds  may  be  regarded,  theoretically,  as 
hydrocarbons  in  which  one  or  more  of  the  hydrogens  have 
been  replaced  by  halogen  elements.  For  example,  from 
methane,  CH4,  there  can  be  produced 

CH3C1,  CH2C12,  CHC13,          and          CC14 

Methyl  Methylene  Chloroform.  Carbon 

chlorid.  chlorid.  tetrachlorid. 

They  are  also  called  monochlormethane,  dichlor- 
methane,  etc.,  showing  their  relation  to  methane.  Only 
those  substances  which  are  of  medicinal  importance  will 
be  considered. 


124  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Methane  Trichlorid,  Chloroform  (CHC13;  Molecular 
Weight,  1 1 8). — Made  by  the  action  of  chlorinated  lime 
upon  alcohol.  It  is  a  bright,  clear,  colorless  liquid,  of 
an  ethereal  odor,  and  burning,  sweet  taste.  It  is  non- 
inflammable. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Irritant,  anesthetic, 
stimulant,  narcotic,  and  rubefacient.  Dose,  2  to  20 
minims. 

Preparations  Containing  Chloroform. — Chloroform- 
water,  a  saturated  solution;  chloroform  liniment,  30  per 
cent.;  chloroform  emulsion,  4  per  cent,  by  volume; 
spirits  of  chloroform,  6  per  cent,  by  volume. 

When  chloroform  is  used  as  an  anesthetic  it  must  be 
pure.  It  should  never  be  administered  in  the  presence 
of  gas  light,  as  a  poisonous  compound  is  formed;  nor  to 
those  suffering  with  weak  heart. 

Toxicology. — Irregular,  shallow,  stertorous  breathing 
and  dilated  pupils.  If  swallowed,  the  stomach  must  be 
emptied  by  pump  or  siphon  or  emetics.  Lower  the 
head  and  pull  forward  the  tongue,  artificial  respiration, 
electricity,  hot  and  cold  douche,  ammonia  by  inhala- 
tion, friction,  heat,  brandy,  atropin  and  strychnin. 

Methane  Tri-iodid,  lodoform  (CHI3;  Molecular 
Weight,  391). — Made  by  a  process  similar  to  that  for 
making  chloroform.  It  occurs  in  small  yellow  crystals 
with  disagreeable  characteristic  odor,  containing  nearly 
97  per  cent,  of  iodin. 

Medicinal  Properties  and    Uses. — Antiseptic  and  in- 


ALCOHOLS  125 

creases  appetite.  Dose,  i  to  3  gr.  The  ointment  is 
official,  containing  10  per  cent,  of  iodoform. 

Methane  Tribromid,  Bromoform  (CHBr3;  Molecular 
Weight,  253).— A  colorless  liquid,  specific  gravity  2.808, 
resembling  chloroform. 

Medicinal  Properties. — Anesthetic  and  antispasmodic. 
Dose,  2  to  5  minims,  best  given  in  the  form  of  emulsion, 
as  bromoform  is  insoluble  in  water. 

Monochlorethane,  ethyl  chlorid  (C2H5C1;  Molecular 
weight,  64),  is  a  liquid,  boiling  at  13°  C.  It  comes  on 
the  market  in  small  tubes.  The  heat  of  the  hand  is 
sufficient  to  vaporize  it.  It  is  used  both  as  a  general  and 
local  anesthetic.  In  the  latter  case  the  parts  are  frozen 
by  the  rapid  evaporation,  producing  a  white  spot. 

ALCOHOLS 

Alcohols  are  aliphatic  hydrocarbons  in  which  one  or 
more  of  the  hydrogens  have  been  replaced  by  the  radicle 
hydroxyl,  (OH).  They  are  termed  monatomic,  di- 
atomic, etc.,  according  to  the  number  of  (OH)'s  it  may 
contain. 

Methyl  Alcohol,  Methyl  Hydroxid;  Wood  Alcohol; 
Wood  Naphtha  (CH3OH;  Molecular  Weight,  32).— 
This  is  produced  when  wood  is  subjected  to  destructive 
distillation.  It  is  a  colorless  liquid.  When  pure,  it  is 
practically  without  odor,  but,  as  found  in  commerce,  it 
possesses  a  very  disagreeable  odor.  It  is  used  as  a 
solvent  for  fats,  oils,  resins,  and  some  alkaloids.  Under 


126  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

the  name  of  "Columbian  spirit"  a  pure  commercial 
article  is  found.  It  is  frequently  used  in  preparations 
for  internal  use,  and  causes  blindness. 

Ethyl  alcohol,  ethyl  hydroxid;  grain  alcohol  (C2H5OH; 
Molecular  weight,  46),  is  obtained  by  fermentation  of 
saccharine  substances,  subsequently  distilled  to  obtain  it 
in  concentrated  form.  The  official  alcohols  are:  Alco- 
hol, containing  95  per  cent,  by  volume  of  ethyl  hydroxid; 
Alcohol  dilutum,  about  49  per  cent.;  Alcohol  absolutum, 
about  99  per  cent.  When  alcohol  absolutum  is  first 
made  it  contains  100  per  cent.,  but  it  readily  absorbs 
moisture  from  the  air. 

Ethyl  alcohol  is  a  light,  colorless  liquid,  with  a  pleas- 
ant odor.  When  mixed  with  water  it  produces  an 
elevation  of  temperature  and  a  contraction  in  volume. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses.  —  Stimulant,  depres- 
sant, astringent,  and  antiseptic.  It  at  first  raises  the 
body-heat,  then  lowers  it;  hence  its  use  in  febrile  condi- 
tions. 

Alcohol  is  prepared  from  substances  containing  starch, 
but  before  this  can  be  accomplished  the  starch  must 
first  be  changed  into  glucose  and  levulose  by  the  action 
of  the  ferment,  diastase: 


H20     =     C6HI2O6     +     C6H1206 
Starch.  Glucose.  Levulose. 

The  action  of  the   ferment  Saccharomyces  cerevisicz, 
found  in  yeast,  then  converts  the  sugars  into  alcohol. 
=    2C,H5OH    +    2CO, 


ALCOHOLS  127 

Beer  is  an  infusion  of  malt  and  hops,  and  contains 
2  to  4  per  cent,  of  alcohol.  Wines  are  fermented  grape- 
juice,  containing  from  10  to  14  per  cent,  of  alcohol. 
Sweet  wines  contain  undecomposed  sugar;  in  dry  wines 
all  the  sugar  has  been  converted  into  alcohol.  Whisky 
is  fermented  grain;  brandy,  a  distillate  of  wine;  rum, 
fermented  molasses.  These  contain  from  40  to  50  per 
cent,  of  alcohol. 

Glycerin,  glycerol  (C3H5(OH)3;  Molecular  weight,  92), 
is  obtained  by  the  action  of  alkalis  or  superheated 
steam  upon  fats.  It  is  a  clear,  colorless,  syrupy  liquid, 
with  a  sweet,  warm  taste.  It  is  very  hygroscopic. 
When  acted  upon  by  HNOs  it  produces  nitroglycerin, 
C3H5(NO3)3,  which  is  explosive,  a  i  per  cent,  alcoholic 
solution  forming  spirits  nitroglycerin,  which  is  used  as  a 
cardiac  sedative  in  i-drop  doses. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Glycerin  is  emollient, 
laxative,  and  solvent. 

Official  Preparations  of  Glycerin. — Glycerin  supposi- 
tories contain  45  gr.  of  glycerin  in  each;  glycerite  of  phenol, 
20  per  cent,  phenol ;  glycerite  of  tannic  acid,  20  per  cent. ; 
glycerite  of  boroglycerini,  50  per  cent. 

Fats  are  compound  ethers,  or  esters,  of  the  higher 
fatty  acids,  with  the  radicle  glyceryl,  (C3H5).  When 
liquid  at  the  ordinary  temperature  they  are  called 
oils.  The  consistency  of  fats  depends  upon  the  fatty 
acids  they  contain  and  the  proportion  of  each.  Those 
containing  the  larger  quantity  of  stearic  acid  are  solid; 


128  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

while  those  with  oleic  acid  in  excess  are  liquid  (see  page 
136): 


C3H6(C18H3302)3        C3H6(C17H3302)3 

Olein,  liquid.  Palmatin,  semiliquid.  Stearin,  solid. 

Soaps  are  metallic  salts  of  the  higher  fatty  acids,  and 
result  when  fats  are  acted  upon  by  alkalis,  glycerin 
being  produced  at  the  same  time: 
C3H6(C18H3302)3     +    3NaOH     =     3Na(C18H83O2)     +     CaH^OH), 

Olein.  Sodium  oleate  or 

Castile  soap. 

The  soaps  of  the  alkalis  are  soluble,  while  those  of  the 
other  metals  are  insoluble.  The  potassium  soaps  are 
soft  soaps,  and  the  soda  soaps  are  hard. 

Soft  soap  was  formerly  of  a  green  color  and  called 
"green  soap";  and  its  solution  in  alcohol,  flavored  with 
oil  of  lavender,  or  Linimentum  sapo  mollis,  sometimes 
called  tincture  of  green  soap,  is  used  as  a  detergent  prior 
to  surgical  operations.  Sapo,  or  Castile  soap,  is  a  con- 
stituent of  soap  liniment  and  soap  plaster.  A  solution  of 
Castile  soap  added  to  lead  acetate  forms  the  lead  plaster 

of  pharmacy. 

ALDEHYDS 

Theoretically    considered,    an    aldehyd    contains    2 
atoms  of  hydrogen  less  than  an  alcohol.     The  name  is 
derived   from    Alcohol   dehydrogenated,    two   hydrogens 
being  removed  by  oxidation  of  the  alcohol: 
C2H5OH    —    2H    =    C2H4O  or  C2H6OH  +    O   =   C2H4O  +  H2O 

Acetic  aldehyd. 

Aldehyds  contain  the  characteristic  radicle  (CHO) 
linked  to  a  hydrocarbon  radicle  or  H:  CH3CHO  or 


ALDEHYDS  129 

HCHO.     The  name  of  the  aldehyd  is  not  taken  from 

the  radicle  with  which  the  (CHO)  is  combined,  but 
from  the  name  of  the  acid  produced  by  the  oxidation 
of  the  aldehyd.  For  example,  when  CH3(CHO)  is 
oxidized,  acetic  acid  is  formed  and  the  aldehyd  is  called 
acetic  aldehyd: 

CH3CHO    -f-    O     =     CH3COOH 

Acetic  aldehyd.  Acetic  acid. 

Formaldehyd  (HCHO  or  CH2O;  Molecular  Weight, 
30). — Prepared  from  methyl  alcohol  by  oxidation: 
CH3OH     +    O     =     HCHO    +     HZO 

The  gas  thus  prepared  is  passed  into  water  until  it 
contains  37  per  cent,  and  constitutes  the  formaldehyd 
solution  of  the  U.  S.  P.  It  is  used  as  a  disinfectant  and 
frequently  used  unlawfully  as  a  preservative  for  milk. 

Its  presence  can  be  readily  shown  by  placing  in  a 
test-tube  H2SO4  and  pouring  milk  carefully  on  top,  in 
such  a  manner  as  not  to  mix  them,  and  so  as  to  form  two 
distinct  layers.  The  acid  should  contain  a  slight  trace 
of  iron.  A  purple  color  will  develop  in  the  presence  of 
formaldehyd. 

Paraldehyd  (C6Hi203;  Molecular  Weight,  132).— 
Made  by  the  condensation  of  3  molecules  of  acetic 

aldehyd : 

3CH3CHO     =     C6H12O3 

It  is  a  colorless  liquid,  with  a  sharp,  burning  taste. 
It  is  a  hypnotic  in  doses  of  15  to  60  minims  in  syrup, 
largely  diluted. 


130  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Trichloraldehyd,  Chloral  Hydrate  (CC13CHO.H2O; 
Molecular  Weight,  164). — When  Cl  acts  upon  alcohol, 
several  changes  take  place,  finally  resulting  in  chloral, 
which,  when  water  is  added  to  it,  forms  the  crystalline 
chloral  hydrate.  It  is  soluble  in  water,  alcohol,  and 
ether;  has  an  aromatic  odor;  and  liquefies  when  trit- 
urated with  camphor,  menthol,  or  phenol.  Caustic 
alkalis  decompose  it  into  chloroform. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Externally  it  is  anti- 
septic, vesicant,  and  anodyne;  internally,  soporific, 
hypnotic,  and  general  depressant.  Dose,  5  to  20  gr. 

Toxicology. — Give  emetics;  wash  out  the  stomach; 
weak  solution  of  potassium  or  sodium  hydrate;  stimu- 
lants. 

KETONES 

Ketones  are  compounds  containing  the  characteristic 
radicle  carbonyl,  (CO),  linked  to  two  hydrocarbon  radi- 
cles. These  radicles  may  be  of  the  same  kind  or  of 
different  kinds.  The  ending  "one"  indicates  a  ketone. 

CH8COCH3  CH3COC2H5 

Dimethyl  ketone.  Methyl-ethyl  ketone. 

Acetone,  Dimethyl  Ketone  (CH3COCH3  or  C3H6O; 
Molecular  Weight,  58). — This  substance  is  a  liquid, 
prepared  by  heating  calcium  acetate.  It  is  used  in 
pharmacy  as  a  solvent  in  the  preparation  of  oleo- 
resins,  and  also  for  making  chloroform  and  iodoform. 
It  is  found  in  the  urine  in  acetonurea  (q.  v.). 


ETHERS  131 

SULPHUR  DERIVATIVES 

If  the  oxygen  of  a  monatomic  alcohol  is  replaced  by 
sulphur,  a  mercaptan,  or  sulphur  alcohol,  is  produced: 
C2H6OH  C2H5SH 

Ethyl  alcohol.  Ethyl  mercaptan. 

Upon  oxidation  they  produce  sulphonic  acid  com- 
pounds* 

C2H6SH    +    3O     =     C2H5S02.OH 

Ethyl  mercaptan.  Ethyl  sulphonic  acid. 

Mercaptans  form  condensation  products  with  ketones 
called  mercaptols: 


*\tio 

CH/    \ 

H|SC2HS 
+      i 
HiSC2H5 

CH3.        xSC2H5 
CH3           SC2Hs 
Methyl  mercaptol. 

Methyl 
Ketone. 

Ethyl 
mercaptan. 

Mercaptols,  when  oxidized,  produce  compounds  that 
are  used  as  hypnotics: 

CH3\     /SC2H3  CH3V      /SO2C2H6 

>C<(  +    40     =  >C< 

CH/     \SC2H5  CH/     \S02C2H5 

Mercaptol.  Di-ethyl-sulphone-dimethyl-methane, 

"or  sulphonal." 

If  ethyl-methyl  ketone  were  used  at  the  start,  the 
product  would  have  been  "trional."  The  dose  of 
these  compounds  is  from  15  to  30  gr. 

ETHERS 

Others  are  oxids  of  hydrocarbon  radicles  or  hydro- 
carbon radicles  linked  to  oxygen.  They  are  divided 


132  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

into  simple  and  mixed  ethers.     Simple  ethers  contain 
the  same  radicles,  as  CH3OCH3;  and  the  mixed  ethers 

Dimethyl  oxid. 

contain  different  radicles,  as  CH3OC2H5. 

Methyl-ethyl-ether. 

Ethyl  Ether,  Ethyl  Oxid;  Sulphuric  Ether  ((C2H5)2O).- 
This  is  made  by  the  action  of  H2S04  upon  alcohol,  the 
process  taking  place  in  two  steps: 

C2H5OH     +    H2SO4     =     C2H5HSO4    +     H2O; 

Ethyl  sulphuric 
acid. 

then, 

+    C2HSOH     =     (C2H6)2O    +    H2SO4 


Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses.  —  Externally,  irritant, 
local  anesthetic,  and  refrigerant.  Internally,  anesthetic, 
stimulant,  and  carminative.  Dose,  5  to  60  minims. 

Ether  anesthesia  is  more  of  a  renal  and  bronchial 
irritant  than  chloroform,  and  also  likely  to  produce 
vomiting,  and  its  first  stage  of  stimulation  is  longer  than 
with  chloroform. 

Toxicology.  —  Similar  to  chloroform. 

Two  preparations  of  ether  are  official:  Spirits  of 
ether,  containing  32.5  per  cent,  of  ether  in  alcohol;  and 
the  compound  spirits  of  ether,  or  Ho/mann's  anodyne, 
containing,  in  addition  to  the  above,  2.5  per  cent,  of 
ethereal  oil. 

Compound  Ethers.  —  These  correspond  to  metallic 
oxygen  salts,  in  which  the  metal  has  been  replaced  by  a 
hydrocarbon  radicle: 

CH,COOH  CH.COONa  CH3COOCtH8 

Acetic  acid.  Sodium  acetate.  Ethyl  acetate. 


ETHERS  133 

They  are  not  ethers,  notwithstanding  the  name,  as 
can  be  seen  from  the  formula,  since  they  are  not  oxids; 
and  the  term  '  'ether"  is  given  to  them  owing  to  their 
ethereal  properties.  A  few  of  the  compound  ethers  do 
not  possess  these  properties, 

Acetic  Ether,  Ethyl  Acetate  (CH3COOC2H5;  Molecular 
Weight,  88). — Made  by  the  action  of  acetic  acid  upon 
ethyl  alcohol: 

QHsOH    +     CH3COOH     =     CH3COOC2H6    +    H2O 

This  possesses  a  very  pleasant  odor,  and  is  used 
principally  as  a  flavoring  agent. 

Ethyl  Nitrite  (C2H5NO2;  Molecular  Weight,  75).- 
Made  by  the  action  of  H2SO4  upon  sodium  nitrite  in  the 
presence  of  alcohol. 

A  4  per  cent,  solution  of  it,  by  weight,  in  alcohol 
forms  the  official  spirits  of  niter.  Spirits  of  niter  is  a 
diffusible  stimulant,  stomachic,  carminative,  diaphoretic, 
and  diuretic.  Dose  of  the  spirit,  i  to  2  drams. 

Amyl  Nitrite  (C5H9NO2;  Molecular  Weight,  115).— 
This  is  made  in  a  manner  similar  to  the  above,  except 
that  amyl  alcohol  is  used  instead  of  ethyl.  It  is  a  liquid 
insoluble  in  water,  soluble  in  alcohol.  It  is  found  in 
pharmacy  in  small  glass  pearls  containing  5  minims. 
The  pearls  are  broken  in  a  handkerchief  and  their  con- 
tents inhaled. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Sedative,  depressant, 
antispasmodic,  and  anodyne.  Given  internally  in  doses 
of  J  to  i  minim. 


134  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Other  Compound  Ethers. — Methyl  salicylate,  artificial 
oil  of  wintergreen,  used  as  a  flavoring  agent.  The 
natural  oil  is  used  in  the  treatment  of  rheumatism. 

Glyceryl  trinitrate,  nitroglycerin,  and  glyceryl  bar  ate 
have  already  been  taken  up  (q.  v.). 

ORGANIC  ACIDS 

These  contain  the  characteristic  radicle,  carboxyl 
(CO.OH),  linked  to  a  hydrocarbon  radicle  or  H.  If 
they  contain  only  one  carboxyl,  they  are  termed  mono- 
basic; if  two,  dibasic,  etc.: 

/COOH 
H.COOH  CH3.COOH  CH2< 

XCOOH 

Formic  acid.  Acetic  acid.  Malonic  acid. 

Monobasic  Fatty  Acids. — They  have  the  general 
formula  of  CnH2nO2,  and  form  homologous  series  similar 
to  all  the  preceding  classes  of  carbon  compounds. 

Formula  upon         General  molecular 

Name.  the  carboxyl  type.  formula. 

Formic HCO2H  CH2O2 

Acetic CH3C02H  C2H4O2 

Propionic C2H6CO2H  C3H6O2 

Butyric C3H7C02H  CJH8O2 

Valeric C4H9CO2H  C5H10O2 

Caproic C5HUCO2H  C6H12O2 

Palmitic C16H33CO2H  C17H34O2 

Stearic C17H35CO2H  C18H36O2 

Some  of  these  acids  are  made  by  the  oxidation  of  the 
corresponding  alcohol. 

They  are  called  "fatty  acids"  on  account  of  the  large 
number  of  them  found  in  fats. 


ORGANIC  ACIDS  135 

Formic  Acid  (HC02H,  CH2O2;  Molecular  Weight, 
46) . — Name  derived  from  formica,  the  ant,  being  found 
in  ants.  It  is  made  artificially  by  heating  oxalic  acid 
with  .glycerin. 

Acetic  Acid  (CH3CO2H,  C2H4O2;  Molecular  Weight, 
60). — Prepared  by  the  oxidation  of  alcohol,  as  in  the 
souring  of  wine.  Also  by  destructive  distillation  of 
wood  and  purified.  It  is  found  in  many  plants  and 
certain  animal  secretions.  Three  acetic  acids  are 
official:  Glacial  acetic  acid,  99  per  cent.;  acetic  acid,  36 
per  cent.;  dilute  acetic  acid,  6  per  cent.  It  is  a  liquid 
with  a  characteristic  odor,  soluble  in  water,  and  forms, 
with  metals,  the  acetates,  all  of  which  are  soluble  in 
water.  Vinegar  is  a  solution  containing  about  4  per 
cent,  of  acetic  acid,  made  by  the  oxidation  of  alcohol 
or  fruit  juices,  such  as  wine  or  cider. 

Official  Acetates. — Solution  of  ammonium  acetate, 
"spirit  of  Mindererus,"  contains  7  per  cent,  ammonium 
acetate;  solution  of  iron  and  ammonium  acetate,  Basham/s 
mixture;  lead  acetate;  solution  of  subacetate  of  lead; 
potassium  acetate. 

Butyric  Acid  (C3H7C02H,  C4H8O2).— This  is  found  in 
rancid  butter  and  cheese.  It  is  present  in  the  stomach 
during  certain  forms  of  indigestion.  Combined  with 
ethyl  or  amyl  radicles,  it  forms  compound  ethers  used 
for  flavoring. 

Valeric  Acid  (C4H9CO2H,  C5Hi0O2;  Molecular  Weight, 
102). — This  acid  is  a  constituent  of  valerian  root,  hence 


136  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

the  name.  It  is  also  found  in  the  perspiration.  It  is  a 
liquid,  has  an  offensive  odor,  and  is  soluble  in  alcohol. 
Both  the  zinc  and  ammonium  salts  are  official. 

Stearic  Acid  (CnE^COaH,  Ci8H3602;  Molecular 
Weight,  284). — This  is  a  constituent  of  the  solid  fats, 

such  as  tallow,   combined  with   the  radicle  glyceryl, 

I  I  I 
(CsHs).     It  is  used  in  the  preparation  of  candles  and 

also  for  making  the  official  glycerin  suppositories. 

Oleic  Acid  (Ci7H33C02H,  Ci8H34O2;  Molecular  Weight, 
282). — This  acid  does  not  belong  to  the  fatty  acid 
series,  but  is  "isologous"  to  it,  that  is,  it  has  two  atoms 
of  hydrogen  less  than  the  corresponding  acid  of  the 
fatty  acid  series.  It  is  a  constituent  of  fatty  oils; 
combines  with  metals  and  alkaloids  to  form  the  "oleates," 
and  is  used  for  dermic  medication. 

Official  Oleates. — Atropin,  2  per  cent.;  cocain,  5  per 
cent.;  mercury,  25  per  cent,  of  mercury  oxid;  quinin,  25 
per  cent.;  veratrin,  2  per  cent. 

DIBASIC  ACIDS 

Formula  upon  the 
Name.  Molecular  formula.          carboxyl  type. 

Oxalic C2H204  (C02H)2 

Malonic C3H4O4  CH2(CO2H)2 

Succinic C4H6O4  C2H4(CO2H)2 

While  from  the  chemical  viewpoint  these  acids  pre- 
sent some  interesting  features,  the  only  one  of  medicinal 
importance  is  oxalic  acid. 

Oxalic  Acid  (H2C204,  (C02H)2;  Molecular  Weight, 
90). — In  nature  this  acid  is  widely  distributed  in  plants 


DIBASIC  ACIDS  137 

as  the  potassium,  sodium,  and  calcium  salts;  in  rhubarb, 
sorrel,  tomatoes,  and,  in  animal  secretions  as  guano  and 
urine.  It  is  prepared  commercially  by  heating  sawdust 
with  KOH,  adding  lime,  and  precipitating  with  H2SO4. 
It  is  a  crystalline  substance,  soluble  in  water,  and 
poisonous.  It  is  used  as  a  cleaning  agent  and  to  remove 
ink-  and  iron-stains. 

Toxicology. — Give  calcium  salts,  as  chalk;  plaster 
from  the  wall,  which  forms  with  it  the  insoluble  calcium 
oxalate,  CaC204;  followed  by  emetics  and  demulcent 
drinks. 

Hydroxy  Acids. — These  are  acids  in  which  one  or 
more  hydrogens  of  the  nucleus  has  been  replaced  by 
the  radicle  (OH). 

CHSCO2H  CH2(OH)  CO2H 

Acetic  acid.  Monohydroxy  acetic  acid. 

Several  of  the  hydroxy  acids  are  used  in  medicine, 
and  are  found  in  the  body,  and  these  will  be  referred  to 
under  Physiologic  Chemistry. 

Lactic  Acid,  Hydroxypropionic  Acid  (HC3H5O3, 
C2H4(OH)C02H;  Molecular  Weight,  90).— The  formula 
of  propionic  acid,  as  has  been  shown  under  the  Fatty 
Acids,  is  C2H6CO2H.  If  one  hydrogen  of  the  nucleus  or 
(C2H5)  is  replaced  by  (OH),  lactic  acid  results.  Three 
"isomeric"1  lactic  acids  exist,  but  space  in  a  work  of 
this  kind  will  not  permit  of  an  extended  description. 
1  See  page  144. 


138  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

The  ordinary  lactic  acid  is  present  in  the  gastric  juice, 
and  is  produced  during  milk  fermentation.  It  is  also 
contained  in  "sauer  kraut."  The  official  acid  contains 
75  per  cent.  Sarcolactic  acid,  an  isomer  of  the  above, 
occurs  in  the  muscles  and  in  meat  extracts,  and  its  pres- 
ence induces  cadaveric  rigidity. 

Malic  Acid  (C2H3(OH)(CO2H)2).—This  is  monohy- 
droxy  succinic  acid.  It  is  found  in  the  juice  of  many 
fruits,  as  apples,  currants,  cherries,  etc. 

Tartaric  Acid  (H2C4H4O6,  C2H2(OH)2(CO2H)2;  Molec- 
ular Weight,  150). — Four  tartaric  acids  are  possible. 
The  official  acid  is  found  in  vegetables  and  fruits.  In 
the  grape  it  exists  as  potassium  bitartrate,  which  is  de- 
posited in  the  wine-cask  during  fermentation.  The 
impure  cream  of  tartar  is  purified,  and  treated  with 
lime,  forming  calcium  tartrate,  from  which  tartaric 
acid  is  produced  by  adding  H2SO4. 

The  acid  is  contained  in  Seidlitz  powders  and  the  effer- 
vescing salts.  The  official  tartrates  are:  Potassium 
bitartrate,  "cream  of  tartar";  sodium  and  potassium 
tartrate,  "Rochelle  salts";  antimony  and  potassium  tar- 
trate, " tartar  emetic,"  and  iron  and  potassium  tartrate. 

Citric  Acid  (H3C6H5O7.H2O,  C3H4(OH)CO2H.H20; 
Molecular  Weight,  210). — This  is  a  tribasic  acid,  found 
in  oranges,  lemons,  and  other  fruits. 

Like  tartaric  acid,  it  enters  into  the  composition  of 
the  effervescing  salts.  It  forms,  with  metals,  the  citrates. 
The  official  citrates  are  those  of  potassium,  sodium, 


AMINO-ACIDS  139 

lithium,  bismuth,  bismuth  and  ammonium,  iron,  iron 
and  ammonium,  iron  and  quinin,  and  solution  of  mag- 
nesium. 

AMINO-ACIDS 

These  are  derived,  theoretically  from  acids,  similar 
to  the  hydroxy  acid,  by  replacement  of  H  of  the  nucleus 
by  the  radicle  (NH2): 

CH3CO2H  CH2(NH2)CO2H 

Acetic  acid.  Amino-acetic  acid. 

Aminoformic  Acid,  Carbamic  Acid  (NH2CO2H).— 
The  ammonium  salt  of  this  acid  is  a  constituent  of  the 
artificial  ammonium  carbonate  (q.  v.). 

Urethans  are  ethereal  salts,  or  compound  ethers  of 
this  acid. 

Ethyl  carbamate,  ur  ethane  (NH2CO2C2H5),  is  a  crys- 
talline powder  used  as  a  hypnotic,  in  doses  of  10  to  40 

gr. 

Amino-acetic  Acid,  Glycocoll;  Glycin   (CH2NH2C02H). 
—  This  is  obtained  by  decomposition  of  hippuric  acid: 
+    H2O     =     CH2NH2CO2H    +    C7H6O2 


Hippuric  acid. 

Amino-acetic  acid  is  also  made  by  the  action  of 
alkalis  upon  glycocholic  acid,  the  sodium  salt  of  which  is 
a  constituent  of  bile: 

C26H4,NO6    +    H2O     =     CH2NH2CO2H    +     C24H40O6 

Glycocholic  acid.  Cholic  acid. 

Associated  with  sodium  glycocholate,  there  is  another 
sodium  salt  combined  with  taurocholic  acid,  and,  under 


140  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

similar  conditions,  it  splits  up  into  cholic  acid  and 
taurin: 

C26H45N07S     +    H20     =     C24H4006    +     C2H7N03S 
Taurocholic  acid.  Cholic  acid.  Taurin. 

These  are  known  as  the  "biliary  salts,"  and  are  found  to 
the  extent  of  i  per  cent,  in  the  bile. 

These  salts  are  now  on  the  market  hi  tabloid  form,  and 
are  used  to  increase  the  bile-salts  in  the  intestines. 

Amido-  or  Amino-acids  of  Physiologic  Importance. — 
amidocaproic  acid  (leucin),  amidosuccinic  acid  (aspartic 
acid),  para-oxyphenylamidopropionic  acid  (tyrosin), 
amidopyrotartaric  acid  (glutamic  acid),  amidopro- 
pionic  acid  (alanin),  creatin,  and  creatinin. 

AMINS 

These  may  be  considered  as  ammonia  in  which  one  or 
more  of  its  hydrogens  have  been  replaced  by  hydro- 
carbon radicles.  If  one  H  is  replaced,  a  primary  or 
normal  amin  is  formed;  if  two,  a  secondary  or  di-amin; 
if  all,  a  tri-  or  tertiary  amin. 


N-H  y-H 

— H    or  NH,,  |U— H 

-H  ll-CI 


or  NH2CH8, 
I— CHS 

Ammonia.  Methyl  amin, 

a  primary  amin. 


N-C2H5    orNH(C,H6)2,  M 

-C2HS  II 


I— H  tl-C3H7 

-C3H7    or  N(C3H7), 
|-C3H7 

Di-ethyl  amin,  Tripropyl  amin, 

a  secondary  amin.  a  tertiary  amin. 


Amids. — These  differ  from  amins,  in  that  the  H  in 
this  case  is  replaced  by  acid  radicles  instead  of  hydro- 


CLOSED  CHAIN  OR  CYCLIC  HYDROCARBONS      141 

carbon  radicles.     The  acid  radicle  referred  to  in  this  case 
is  the  organic  acid,  without  the  (OH)  of  the  carboxyl 
radicle.1 
Urea,  Carbamid  (N2H4CO  or  SS2/CO).—  This  is  an 

HO\ 

amid  of  carbonic  acid,  CO,  the  hydroxyls  having 


been  replaced  by  (Nils).     It  is  found  in  the  urine  and 
blood  of  all  mammalia.     (See  Urine.) 

Ureids  are  urea  in  which  one  or  more  of  the  H  have 
been  replaced  by  acid  radicles.  These  compounds  form 
important  synthetic  medicinal  substances,  among  which 
are  malonyl  urea  and  di-ethyl  malonyl  urea,  or  veronal; 
a  hypnotic,  given  in  5-  to  lo-gr.  doses. 

AROMATIC,  CLOSED  CHAIN,  OR  CYCLIC  HYDROCARBONS 

The  starting-point  of  this  class  of  hydrocarbons  is 
benzene  or  benzole,  CeH6.  The  graphic  formula  is 

H 


H— C' 

I 


often   diagrammatically  expressed   by   this   sign, 
This  group,  like  the  hydrocarbons  of  the  paraffin  series, 

1  CHaCO.OH  (CH3CO.) 

Acetic  acid.  Acid  radicle  of  acetic  acid,  called  "acetyl." 

HCO.OH,  HCO.NH,,  CH3CO.OH,  CH3CO.NH, 

Formic  acid.  Formamid.  Acetic  acid.  Acetamid. 


142  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

has  a  large  number  of  homologues.     Only  two  of  them 
need  be  mentioned  here: 

C6H6,  C6H6.CH3  or  C7H8,  C6H4(CH,)2  or  C8H10 

Benzene.  Toluene.  Xylene. 


Benzene,  Benzole  (CeHe;  Molecular  Weight,  78).— 
This  is  the  most  important  member  of  the  series,  and  is 
obtained  from  the  distillate  of  coal-tar.  It  is  a  colorless, 
highly  volatile  liquid,  with  an  aromatic  odor,  and  is  a 
solvent  for  fats,  oil,  and  resins. 

Nitrobenzene,  Oil  of  Mirbane  (C6H5NO2;  Molecular 
Weight,  123).  —  This  is  a  very  poisonous  substance,  act- 
ing as  a  cardiac  depressant  when  excessively  inhaled, 
and  is  used  as  a  flavoring  agent,  resembling  somewhat 
oil  of  bitter  almonds.  It  is  made  by  treating  benzene 
with  HNO3: 

C6H6    +    HNO,     =     CeHsNO,    +    H2O 

Graphic  formula: 
H 

HC        CH 

or 
HC        CNO2  \/N02 

\C/ 
H 

Hydroxybenzenes  or  Phenols.  —  Phenols  are  alcohols 
of  the  benzene  series.  Generally  considered,  alcohols 
are  derived  from  the  aliphatic  hydrocarbons,  while 
phenols  are  those  obtained  by  the  replacement  of  one  or 
more  H  by  (OH)  in  benzene. 

Phenol,  Carbolic  Acid  (C6H6OH;  Molecular  Weight, 


CLOSED  CHAIN  OR  CYCLIC  HYDROCARBONS      143 

94). — Obtained  from  the  distillate  of  coal-tar  and  sub- 
sequently purified. 

It  is  a  colorless  solid,  with  a  characteristic  odor;  melts 
at  35°  C.;  and  if  diluted  with  5  per  cent,  of  water  remains 
liquid.  The  liquefied  phenol  of  the  U.  S.  P.  is  made  by 
adding  to  9  parts,  by  weight,  of  melted  phenol  i  part  of 
water. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Antiseptic,  germi- 
cide, anesthetic,  and  poisonous.  Dose,  i  minim.  It 
is  contained  in  Glyceritum  phenolis,  20  per  cent. ;  and  in 
Unguentum  phenolis,  3  per  cent.,  incorporated  with 
petrolatum. 

Toxicology. — White  of  egg;  alcohol,  followed  by 
emetics.  Magnesium  or  sodium  sulphate  may  also  be 
given,  with  which  phenol  produces  the  phenolsulphon- 
ates. 

Tests  of  Phenol. — It  coagulates  albumin  and  collodion. 
With  ferric  chlorid,  an  amethyst  solution  is  obtained. 

Nitrophenols. — When  HNO3  acts  upon  phenol,  a 
mono-,  di-,  or  tri-nitrophenol  is  obtained,  depending 
upon  conditions. 

Trinitrophenol,  Picric  Acid  (CeHzCNC^aOH;  Molecu- 
lar Weight,  229). — This  is  a  yellow  crystalline  substance, 
with  a  very  bitter  taste,  forming  compounds  which  are 
explosive.  It  is  used  for  dyeing  silks  and  tissues,  as  a 
precipitant  for  albumin  and  alkaloids,  and  as  a  counter- 
irritant  for  burns.  In  this  latter  use  it  has  been  stated 
to  be  sometimes  followed  by  poisonous  effects. 


144  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Cresols. — These  are  defined  as  either  homologous 
phenols  or  hydroxytoluenes,  which  can  be  shown  dia- 
grammatically  as  follows.  Starting  with  phenol,  we 

have,  [T®,  by  adding  CH2  we  form  pj"*  >  or  by 

\/  \/CH' 

starting  with  toluene,  f  JCH ,  and  replacing  one  H  by 
(OH),  we  obtain  ||°H  ,  which  will  be  seen  to  be  of  the 

\/CH3 

same  composition  as  the  first. 

ISOMERIC    COMPOUNDS    OF    THE    AROMATIC    HYDRO- 
CARBONS 

Among  the  carbon  compounds  will  be  found  many 
instances  where  substances  exist  having  the  same  com- 
position as  others,  but  which  possess  different  physical 
properties,  and  to  which  the  term  "isomerism"  is  given. 

If  two  H  of  benzene  are  replaced,  it  has  been  found 
that  three  distinctive  compounds  may  be  produced,  all 
with  the  same  chemical  composition,  but  each  possess- 
ing different  physical  properties.  For  convenience,  each 
H  of  benzene  will  be  designated  by  a  different  number, 
If  numbers  i  and  2  are  replaced,  an  "ortho"  compound 
will  be  formed,  frequently  expressed  as  i  :  2;  if  i  and  3 
are  replaced,  a  "meta,"  1:3;  and  if  i  and  4  is  the  posi- 
tion of  the  substitution,  a  "para,"  or  1:4: 

i  OH  OH  OH 

6/\2  61/NoH 

slja  S(j3 

4  4  4  OH 

"Ortho"  or  i :  a.         "Meta"  or  i :  3.         "Para"  or  i :  4. 


COMPOUNDS  OF  THE  AROMATIC  HYDROCARBONS     145 

The  official  cresol  is  a  mixture  of  the  three  isomeric 
cresols.  They  are  similar  in  properties  to  phenol,  but 
less  poisonous.  Mixed  with  soap  solution,  they  are  used 
by  the  surgeon,  under  various  names,  as  lysol,  creolin, 
kresol,  kreso,  etc. 

Dihydroxy  Benzenes  (C6H4(OH)2). — From  the  formula 
of  these  compounds  it  will  be  seen  that  since  two  of  the 
H  of  benzene  has  been  replaced  by  (OH),  three  isomeric 
compounds  of  the  above  composition  can  exist.  All  of 
these  are  known  and  have  extensive  use;  only  one, 
however,  which  is  of  medicinal  importance,  will  be 
taken  up  here. 

Resorcinol,  Resorcin;  Metadihydroxy  Benzene  (C6H4- 
(OH)2,  1:3;  Molecular  Weight,  no). — This  is  made  by 
fusing  different  resins  with  alkalis.  It  possesses  prop- 
erties somewhat  allied  to  phenol.  It  is  antiseptic,  anti- 
pyretic, and  depressant.  Used  internally  in  fermentative 
dyspepsia  and  intestinal  troubles  in  doses  of  2  to  5  gr. 

Creosote. — This  is  obtained  from  wood-tar,  and  is  a 
liquid  with  a  smoky  odor,  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and 
chloroform. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Stimulant,  anti- 
septic, and  parasiticide. 

Used  in  phthisis  and  bronchial  affections  in  doses  of 
i  to  10  minims.  Aqua  creosote  contains  i  per  cent,  of 
it.  Creosote  owes  its  virtues  to  guaiacol  and  cresol, 
the  former  being  contained  in  it  to  the  extent  of  from 

60  to  90  per  cent. 
10 


146  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Guaiacol,  monomethyl  catechin,  is  obtained  either 
from  creosote,  of  which  it  is  a  natural  constituent,  or 
prepared  synthetically.  It  is  a  crystalline  solid  or  a 
colorless  liquid,  with  a  strong  aromatic  odor.  Used 
like  creosote,  in  i-  to  lo-minim  doses. 

Pyrogallol,  Pyrogallic  Acid;  Trihydroxy  Benzene  (C6- 
H3(OH)3;  Molecular  Weight,  126).— Obtained  by  heat- 
ing gallic  acid,  hence  its  name.  Used  as  a  developing 
agent  in  photography.  It  is  poisonous. 

Benzaldehyd,  Artificial  Oil  of  Bitter  Almonds  (C6H6- 
CHO;  Molecular  Weight,  106).— This  occurs  in  the 
natural  oil  of  bitter  almonds,  which  differs  from  the 
artificial  oil  in  containing  HCN,  while  the  artificial  does 
not.  It  is  used  as  a  flavoring  agent. 

Benzoic  Acid  (C6H5CO2H,  HC7H5O2;  Molecular 
Weight,  122). — This  is  found  in  benzoin  and  other 
resins,  combined  with  other  substances.  It  is  found 
in  the  urine  of  herbivorous  animals.  (See  Hippuric 
Acid.) 

It  is  prepared  commercially  from  toluene  by  oxida- 
tion: 

CeHsCH,    +    30     =     C6H5C02H    +    H,0 

Benzoic  acid  combines  with  the  alkalis  forming  the 
benzoates.  Those  official  are:  Ammonium,  lithium, 
and  sodium,  all  of  which  are  soluble.  The  acid  is  but 
slightly  soluble  in  water;  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether. 

Tests  for  Benzoates. — The  soluble  benzoates  form, 


COMPOUNDS  OF  THE  AROMATIC  HYDROCARBONS      147 

with  solution  of  ferric  chlorid,  FeCl3,  a  reddish-brown 
precipitate. 

Salicylic  Acid  (C6H4(OH)CO2H,  HC7H5O3;  Molecular 
Weight,  138). — From  the  structural  formula  it  will  be 
seen  that  this  is  a  hydroxybenzoic  acid.  It  is  found 
in  some  plants,  and  is  also  found  as  methyl  salicylate  in 
oil  of  wintergreen.  The  acid  obtained  from  the  oil  is 
called  "natural  salicylic  acid."  Salicylic  acid  of  com- 
merce is  obtained  from  phenol,  and  it  has  been  recently 
shown,  by  the  researches  of  the  Council  of  Pharmacy  and 
Chemistry  of  the  American  Medical  Association,  that 
the  average  salicylic  acid  of  commerce  today  is  free  of 
deleterious  impurities.  It  is  but  slightly  soluble  in  water, 
soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  It  is  used  in  medicine 
combined  with  the  alkalis,  the  salts  of  which  are  soluble. 

Medicinal  Properties. — The  acid  and  salicylates  are 
antiseptic,  antipyretic,  and  analgesic.  Used  principally 
in  rheumatism.  Dose,  5  to  20  gr. 

Phenyl  Salicylate,  Salol  (CeHsCCyHsOs) ;  Molecular 
Weight,  214). — Made  by  action  of  dehydrating  agents 
upon  mixture  of  phenol  and  salicylic  acid.  It  is  anti- 
septic, antipyretic,  and  antirheumatic.  Dose,  5  to 

30  gr- 

Aspirin.  Acetyl  Salicylic  Acid  (C6H4(0)(CH3CO.)- 
CO2H). — This  is  a  derivative  of  salicylic  acid,  used  as 
an  antipyretic  and  analgesic,  in  doses  of  5  to  10  gr. 
It  exists  in  the  form  of  colorless  crystals,  slightly  soluble 
in  water,  and  freely  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether.  The 


148  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

action  of  boiling  water  or  alkalis  decompose  it,  liberat- 
ing acetic  acid. 

Official  Salicylates. — Sodium,  lithium,  and  strontium 
salicylates,  and  bismuth  subsalicylate. 

Test. — Salicylic  acid  and  salicylate  give  with  FeCls 
a  purple  color. 

Gallic  Acid,  Trihydroxy  Benzole  Acid  (C6H2(OH)3- 
CO2H.H2O,  HC7HB05.H20;  Molecular  Weight,  188).- 
This  acid  is  obtained  from  nutgalls  by  the  action  of  a 
specific  ferment  upon  the  tannin  contained  in  the  nut- 
galls.  It  is  a  crystalline  substance,  very  astringent. 
Bismuth  subgallate,  or  "dermatol,"  is  a  yellow,  in- 
soluble powder,  which  is  official  and  made  from  gallic 
acid. 

Tannic  Acid  (HCi4H9O9;  Molecular  Weight,  322).— 
This  acid  is  obtained  from  nutgalls  and  a  host  of  other 
substances.  By  fermentation  it  is  converted  into 
gallic  acid.  Tannic  acid  precipitates  alkaloids  and 
gelatin  and  coagulates  albumin,  and  produces  with  iron 
a  dark-colored  solution  or  precipitate.  It  differs  from 
gallic  acid,  which  does  not  precipitate  the  above-men- 
tioned substances,  and  which,  with  ferric  salts,  pro- 
duces a  bluish-black  precipitate. 

Anilin,  Phenylamin   (C6H5NH2). — The  aromatic  hy- 
drocarbons also  combine  with  (NH2),  like  the  aliphatic 
hydrocarbons,  to  form  the  amins.    Anilin  is  made  by 
the  action  of  nascent  H  upon  nitrobenzene: 
C6H5NO2    +    6H     -     C6H6NH,    +     2H2O 


COMPOUNDS  OF  THE  AROMATIC  HYDROCARBONS  149 

It  is  the  starting-point  of  a  class  of  substances  known 
as  the  "anilin  dyes." 

Acetanilid,  Antifebrin;  Phenyl  Acetamid  (CeHgNH- 
(CH3CO)).—  This  is  made  by  the  action  of  glacial  acetic 
acid  upon  anilin: 

+    CH.CO.OH     =     C6H5NH(CH,CO)     +    H2O 


It  is  an  antipyretic,  analgesic,  and  antispasmodic  in 
doses  of  5  to  10  gr. 

Naphthalene  (Ci0H8).—  This  is  a  white,  crystalline  solid 
of  characteristic  odor,  with  burning,  aromatic  taste, 
poisonous,  insoluble  in  water,  soluble  in  alcohol  and 
ether.  It  is  obtained  from  coal-tar.  "Moth  balls" 
are  composed  wholly  of  naphthalene.  It  is  an  anti- 
septic, vermifuge,  and  parasiticide.  Dose,  2  to  5  gr. 

It  may  be  regarded,  theoretically,  as  a  combination  of 
two  benzene  molecules: 


CX  V 


H—  Alpha 
XCH- 


Beta 


ill 

HC        C        CH 

\C/\C/ 
H        H 

Naphthols  (Ci0H7OH).  —  These  bear  the  same  relation 
to  naphthalene  as  phenols  do  to  benzene.  Two  isomers 
of  the  mononaphthols  are  possible. 

If  the  H  in  the  alpha  position,  as  shown  in  the  fore- 
going diagram,  is  replaced  by  (OH),  an  alpha-naphthol 
is  formed;  if  in  the  beta  position,  beta-naphthol  results: 


150  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

H   OH  H   H 

/C\/C\  /C\/C\ 

HC    C   CH  HC    C   C-OH 

HC    C    CH  HC    C   CH 


H        H  H        H 

Alpha-naphthol.  Beta-naphthol. 

Beta-naphthol  is  official,  and  is  used  as  an  antiseptic, 
deodorizer,  and  antifermentative  in  doses  of  2  to  5  gr. 

Phthalic  Acid  (C6H4(CO2H)2).—  This  is  a  dibasic  acid 
called  phthalic  acid,  because  it  can  be  obtained  from 
naphthalene.  When  heated  it  decomposes,  forming 
phthalic  anhydrid: 

COOH 


/OX 
/      )0 

X/ 


+    H,0 
XCOOH  XCO/ 

Phthalic  acid.  Phthalic  anhydrid. 

Phthalic  anhydrid,  when  heated  with  H2SO4  and 
phenol,  forms  phenolphthalein. 

Phenolphthalein  is  used  as  an  indicator  in  chemical 
work,  forming  with  alkalis  a  beautiful  red  color,  and  a 
colorless  solution  with  acids.  It  has  of  recent  years  been 
used  as  a  purgative  in  doses  of  i  to  5  gr. 

HETEROCYCLIC  HYDROCARBONS 

Benzene  and  naphthalene  are  representatives  of  the 
"cyclic"  or  "closed  chain"  hydrocarbons,  from  the 
formula  of  which  it  will  be  seen  that  they  only  contain 
carbon  and  hydrogen.  When  other  elements  are 
found  in  the  chain,  these  compounds  are  called  "hetero- 


TERPENES  151 

cyclic"  or  mixed  chain  hydrocarbons.    Three  different 
types  exist: 

HC CH 

*8 


II     II 

HC        CH 

JLXV_/  \^ii 

II                     II 

HC        CH 

NH 

Y 

Pyrrol. 

Thiophen. 

Furfurol. 

Pyrrol  (C4H4NH)  is  obtained  from  bone-oil,  and  an 
alcoholic  solution  treated  with  iodin  forms  tetra-iodo- 
pyrrol,  called  "iodol/'  which  is  official  and  used  as  a  sub- 
stitute for  iodoform.  It  is  a  yellow,  odorless  powder: 

CJ^NH     +     81     =     C4I4NH     +     4HI 
Iodol. 

TERPENES 

These  consist  of  a  group  of  unsaturated  hydrocarbons 
with  the  general  formula  of  (C5H8)X,  found  largely  in 
volatile  oils.  They  are  classified  into  various  groups: 

Hemiterpenes,  (CBH8)  (half). 

Terpenes,  CioHi6. 

Sesquiterpenes,  Ci5H24  (one  and  a  half). 

Diterpenes,  C2oH32. 

Polyterpenes,  (Ci0Hi6)x. 

Volatile  Oils.— These  are  liquids  obtained  from  all 
parts  of  plants.  They  are  soluble  in  alcohol,  ether,  and 
chloroform.  They  differ  from  fats  and  oils  in  that  they 
do  not  contain  the  radicle  (C3H5).  They  produce  on 
paper  a  greasy  stain,  which  upon  exposure  soon  disap- 
pears, while  this  stain  with  fats  and  oils  is  permanent. 


152  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

They  are  generally  lighter  than  water,  but  a  few  are 
heavier. 

Terpenes  produce  a  series  of  compounds  known  as 
stearoptens,  of  which  camphor  and  menthol  are  repre- 
sentatives. 

Camphor  (doHi6O)  is  a  white,  translucent  solid,  sol- 
uble in  alcohol,  ether,  chloroform,  and  fats.  Heating 
with  HNO3  produces  camphoric  acid,  CsH^CC^H^. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — It  is  antispasmodic, 
stimulant,  carminative,  stomachic,  diaphoretic,  and 
sedative.  Dose,  i  to  3  gr. 

Preparations  Containing  Camphor. — Aqua  camphora, 
0.8  per  cent.;  liniment  of  camphor,  20  per  cent.,  in 
cotton-seed  oil;  cerate  of  camphor,  2  per  cent.;  spirits 
of  camphor,  10  per  cent. 

Menthol  (Ci0Hi4OH).— This  stearopten  is  found  in  oil 
of  peppermint.  Chemically  it  is  a  secondary  alcohol- 
It  occurs  in  white,  colorless  crystals,  soluble  in  alcohol. 
It  has  a  very  strong  odor  of  peppermint. 

Terpin  Hydrate  (Ci0Hi8(OH).H2O)  is  obtained  by  the 
action  of  HNO3  upon  turpentine.  It  is  a  white,  crystal- 
line substance,  with  a  slight  odor,  insoluble  in  water, 
soluble  in  alcohol. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — It  is  antiseptic,  ex- 
pectorant, diuretic,  and  diaphoretic.  Dose,  2  to  15  gr. 


CARBOHYDRATES  153 

CARBOHYDRATES 

The  term  "carbohydrates"  is  given  to  a  class  of  com- 
pounds containing,  in  the  molecule,  6  atoms  of  carbon 
(or  a  multiple  of  six)  in  combination  with  hydrogen  and 
oxygen,  the  latter  elements  in  the  proportion  to  form 
water.  While  this  is  the  original  classification,  it  can  be 
shown  that  there  are  many  compounds  included  under 
this  heading  in  which  the  carbon,  hydrogen,  and  oxygen 
differ  in  proportion  from  that  above  stated.  Carbo- 
hydrates are  found  in  plants  and  in  animals  (glycogen). 
They  are  usually  designated  by  the  suffix  "ose"  added  to 
some  appropriate  base.  Thus,  l&ctose  and  maltose 
indicate  milk-  and  malt-sugars  respectively.  Chem- 
ically they  vary  in  their  composition,  some  being  alde- 
hyds,  while  others  are  ketones.  They  constitute  the 
sugars,  starches,  gums,  and  celluloses. 

Cellulose,  Plant  Fiber;  Lignin. — This  is  the  framework 
of  plants.  It  is  also  found  as  cotton,  hemp,  and  flax. 
When  treated  with  H2S04,  its  structure  becomes  changed 
and  it  forms  parchment.  It  is  insoluble  in  water,  but  is 
dissolved  by  ammoniac  solution  of  copper  sulphate. 
When  treated  with  HN03  it  forms  gun-cotton  or  pyroxyl- 
lin,  several  varieties  of  which  are  known. 

When  gun-cotton  is  added  to  a  mixture  of  alcohol 
and  ether,  it  dissolves  and  forms  collodion,  which  is 
used  in  surgery  and  forms  a  protective  coating.  Several 
collodions  are  official :  Cantharidal  collodion,  60  per  cent, 
cantharides,  used  as  a  blistering  fluid;  styptic  collodion, 


l$4  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

20  per  cent,  tannic  acid;  flexible  collodion,  containing 
Canada  balsam  and  castor  oil,  to  make  it  more  pliable. 
A  mixture  of  camphor  and  collodion,  upon  proper  treat- 
ment, forms  celluloid. 

Starch.  —  This  is  obtained  from  various  sources,  and 
each  individual  kind  can  be  distinguished  by  certain 
characteristics,  under  the  microscope.  Starch  can  be 
told  chemically  by  the  action  of  iodin,  which  produces 
the  blue  starch  iodid.  It  is  insoluble  in  cold  water,  but 
when  boiled  for  a  short  time  with  water  swells  and  forms 
a  gelatinous  mass.  By  the  action  of  dilute  acids  starches 
are  converted  into  glucose  and  dextrin: 


3C6H1005    +     2H20     =     2C6H1206    +     C6H1006 

Starch.  Glucose.  Dextrin. 

Dextrin,  British  gum,  as  shown  above,  is  obtained 
from  starch.  It  is  soluble  in  water,  forming  mucilage, 
and  produces  with  iodin  a  red  color. 

Cane-sugar,  Saccharose  (C^H^On).  —  This  is  found 
in  certain  fruits  and  also  in  sugar-cane  and  beets.  Solu- 
tions of  cane-sugar,  if  of  sufficient  concentration,  do  not 
ferment,  but  by  the  action  of  dilute  acids  or  yeast  cane- 
sugar  is  converted  into  glucose  and  levulose,  which  under- 
go fermentation: 


C12H22On     +     H20     =     Cjm     +     C6H1206 

Cane-sugar.  Glucose.  Levulose. 

Cane-sugar  does  not  reduce  Fehling's  solution,  while 
glucose  and  levulose  do. 

Lactose,  milk-sugar  (Ci2H22Oii.H20),  is  obtained  by 


ALKALOIDS  155 

crystallization  of  the  whey  of  milk.  It  is  a  crystalline 
substance,  soluble  in  water,  but  not  possessing  the 
sweetness  of  the  other  sugars.  By  fermentation  it  is 
converted  into  alcohol  and  lactic  acid. 

Glucose,  Grape-sugar  (C6Hi2O6). — Originally  found  in 
grapes,  honey,  and  acid  fruits.  It  is  obtained  upon  a 
commercial  scale  by  the  action  of  dilute  acids  upon 
starch.  White  grape-sugar  is  a  solid.  The  commercial 
article  is  in  the  form  of  a  thick  syrup,  and  is  largely  used 
as  a  substitute  for  cane-sugar.  It  is  not  as  sweet  as  cane- 
sugar.  Glucose  is  found  in  diabetic  urine.  (See  under 
Urine.) 

ALKALOIDS 

These  are  groups  of  nitrogenous  substances  possess- 
ing basic  properties,  found  in  all  parts  of  plants,  and  to 
them  the  active  medicinal  properties  of  the  plants  are 
largely  due.  The  name  "alkaloid"  is  given  them  from 
"alkali-like,"  in  allusion  to  their  alkaline  properties. 
When  obtained  from  animals,  they  are  termed  "pto- 
mains,"  and  possess  properties  identical  with  those  of 
the  former.  Chemically,  they  are  either  amins  or 
amids.  The  former  are  liquid  and  volatile,  and  the 
latter  solid  and  non- volatile.  They  combine  with 
acids  to  form  salts. 

They  are  usually  obtained  by  extraction  of  the  drug 
with  acidified  water,  and  adding  to  this  solution  an 
alkali,  which  precipitates  the  alkaloid,  which  is  dissolved 


156  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

in  some  suitable  solvent  and  crystallized.  The  alkaloids 
are  nearly  insoluble  in  water.  They  are  soluble  in  alco- 
hol, ether,  chloroform,  benzine,  and  benzene.  They 
are  precipitated  by  alkali  hydroxids,  except  morphin; 
also  by  the  alkaline  carbonates  and  bicarbonates,  except 
strychnin  and  veratrin;  and  by  tannin,  picric  acid,  mer- 
curic chlorid,  Mayer's  reagent,  and  phosphomolybdic 
acid. 

Toxicology. — After  emptying  stomach,  give  tannic 
acid  or  liquids  containing  it,  like  tea  or  coffee,  followed 
by  emetics.  When  the  nature  of  the  alkaloid  is  known, 
the  proper  physiologic  antidote  should  be  administered. 

The  principal  liquid  alkaloids  are:  Piperidin,  C5HnN; 
nicotin,  Ci6Hi4N;  coniin,  C8Hi5N;  and  spartein,  CisEW^. 
The  sulphate  of  the  latter  is  official.  It  is  obtained  from 
broom  tops,  and  is  a  cardiac  stimulant  and  narcotic. 
Dose,  £  to  i  gr. 

Nicotin  is  obtained  from  tobacco.  It  is  poisonous, 
and  has  a  characteristic  odor.  Poison  is  treated  after 
general  methods,  giving  as  a  physiologic  antidote 
stimulants  and  nitroglycerin,  T^  gr.  or  more. 

Coniin  is  obtained  from  poison  hemlock.  It  has  a 
penetrating,  mouse-urine  odor. 

Alkaloids  from  Cinchona. — Cinchona  bark  contains 
from  21  to  32  alkaloids,  the  principal  among  which  are 
quinin,  quinidin,  cinchonin,  and  cinchonidin. 

They  possess  tonic,  antipyretic,  febrifuge,  stomachic, 
and  antiseptic  properties.  Quinin  in  acid  solution  pro- 


ALKALOIDS  1 57 

duces  a  bluish  fluorescence;  with  chlorin  it  turns  green, 
upon  the  addition  of  NH4OH. 

Strychnin. — This  is  found  in  mix  vomica  and  ignatia 
bean,  combined  with  brucin  and  igasuric  acid.  It  exists 
in  the  form  of  small  crystals,  and  is  so  intensely  bitter 
that  in  solutions  containing  i  part  to  700,000  it  is  still 
perceptible. 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — Motor  excitant, 
tonic,  stomachic,  respiratory,  muscle  and  nervous  stimu- 
lant. Dose,  eV  to  A  gr. 

Toxicology. — Poisoning  is  characterized  by  tetanic 
spasms.  The  muscles  of  respiration  are  rigidly  con- 
tracted with  great  pain  and  fixation  of  the  jaws,  similar 
to  lock-jaw.  Pupils  contracted,  with  opisthotonos  and 
ghastly  grin. 

Place  in  horizontal  position  in  dark  room,  remote  from 
all  noise. 

Chemical  antidote,  potassium  permanganate  with 
tannin  and  charcoal.  Empty  bladder  to  prevent  ab- 
sorption. Chloral,  bromids,  and  inhalations  of  chloro- 
form may  be  beneficial. 

Tests.— Strychnin,  with  a  small  crystal  of  potassium 
dichromate  and  H2S04,  produces  a  play  of  colors— blue 
to  purple,  violet,  crimson,  orange,  and  yellow. 

Opium,  which  is  the  dried  juice  of  the  poppy,  contains 
19  alkaloids  combined  with  meconic,  lactic,  and  sulphuric 
acids.  Those  principally  used  in  medicine  are  morphin 
and  codein. 


158  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Medicinal  Properties  and  Uses. — They  are  poisonous, 
sedative,  narcotic,  anodyne,  hypnotic,  and  diaphoretic. 
Dose:  of  morphin,  £  to  \  gr.;  of  codein,  from  J  to  2  gr. 

Toxicology. — Poisoning  by  opium  or  its  alkaloids  is 
characterized  by  slow  breathing,  cyanosis,  moist  skin, 
and  contracted,  pin-hole  pupils.  Treatment:  Follow 
general  methods;  and  administer  potassium  perman- 
ganate for  chemical  antidote.  Flagellation  with  wet 
towels,  electricity,  and  artificial  respiration  must  also 
be  used. 

Tests. — Morphin,  with  HNOs,  gives  a  blood-red  color; 
with  ferric  chlorid,  a  blue  color;  and  with  H2SO4,  contain- 
ing a  trace  of  formaldehyd,  a  deep  violet  color.  Codein 
with  H2SO4,  with  a  trace  of  iron,  gives  a  blue  color. 

Apomorphin  Hydrochlorid. — This  is  a  salt  of  an  arti- 
ficial alkaloid,  obtained  by  heating  morphin  or  codein 
for  two  hours,  in  sealed  tubes,  with  HC1,  to  a  tempera- 
ture of  150°  C.  Upon  exposure  it  oxidizes  and  should  not 
be  used.  Dose:  as  expectorant,  ¥V  to  -£$  gr.;  as  emetic, 
I  to  i  gr. 

Heroin,  Diacetyl  Morphin. — This  is  an  artificial  alka- 
loid, from  morphin.  It  is  a  cough  sedative  and  respira- 
tory stimulant,  neither  analgesic  nor  hypnotic.  Dose, 
A  to  TV  gr. 

Atropin. — This  is  obtained  from  belladonna,  or 
deadly  nightshade.  It  is  mydriatic,  sedative,  diuretic, 
antispasmodic,  and  increases  peristalsis.  Dose,  rjhr  to 
-fa  gr. 


ALKALOIDS  159 

Toxicology. — Poisoning  by  atropin  or  belladonna  is 
manifested  by  giddiness,  drowsiness,  incoherent  speech, 
dryness  of  the  mouth  and  throat,  dilated  pupils,  and 
flushed  face.  Follow  treatment  for  general  alkaloidal 
poisoning,  with  opium  as  physiologic  antidote. 

Test. — Atropin,  treated  with  HNO3  and  evaporated, 
produces  a  yellow  residue,  turning  violet  upon  addition 
of  alcoholic  solution  of  caustic  potash  and  a  fragment  of 
KOH.  Homatropin  is  a  synthetic  alkaloid  used  as  a 
substitute  for  atropin. 

Aconitin  is  an  alkaloid  found  in  aconite  root,  com- 
bined with  aconitic  acid.  It  is  a  cardiac  and  nerve 
sedative,  anodyne,  diaphoretic,  and  antipyretic.  Dose, 
nirr  to  *fo  gr. 

Toxicology. — Anxious  countenance,  clammy  skin, 
numbness  and  tingling  of  mouth  and  fauces,  and  cardiac 
failure.  Treatment:  General  methods,  with  strychnin. 

Cocain. — This  alkaloid  is  found  in  coca  leaves.  It 
is  a  white,  crystalline  powder.  The  hydrochlorid  is 
soluble  in  water.  It  is  anesthetic  upon  mucous  mem- 
branes and  subcutaneous  tissue,  but  has  little  effect  upon 
unbroken  skin.  Cerebral  stimulant,  tonic,  diuretic, 
diaphoretic,  and  mydriatic.  Dose,  J  to  2  gr. 

Toxicology. — Inhalations  of  ammonia  or  amyl  nitrite, 
chloral,  artificial  respiration,  and  general  methods. 

Tests. — Solutions  of  cocain,  with  HC1  and  potassium 
dichromate,  yield  an  orange  crystalline  precipitate.  A 


160  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

3  per  cent,  solution  of  potassium  permanganate  with 
cocain  produces  a  violet  precipitate. 

Cocain  solutions  must  not  be  sterilized  by  heat,  which 
decomposes  them.  Veratrin,  hydrastin,  and  physostig- 
min  are  alkaloids  of  little  use. 

Physostigmin,  Eserin  (an  Alkaloid  from  Calabar 
Bean). — The  sulphate  and  salicylate  are  official.  The 
salicylate  is  used  largely  in  ocular  practice  as  a  myotic. 
The  alkaloids  are  depressants,  sialagogues,  purgatives, 
and  diaphoretics.  Dose,  ^  to  ¥V  gr. 


PART   III 


PHYSIOLOGIC  CHEMISTRY 

PHYSIOLOGIC  chemistry  is  that  division  of  chemical 
science  treating  of  changes  taking  place  in  the  living 
organism  of  both  animal  and  vegetable  life.  Changes 
occurring  in  the  healthy  organism  are  normal,  while 
those  produced  under  the  influence  of  disease  are  ab- 
normal or  "pathologic."  The  substances  generally 
classified  under  this  head  are  proteins,  fats,  and  carbo- 
hydrates. 

PROTEINS 

These  form  the  chief  part  of  the  solid  and  liquid 
constituents  of  the  body,  such  as  blood,  muscle,  nerves, 
etc.  Proteins  are  also  found  in  small  quantities  in  every 
part  of  plants  and,  in  larger  amounts,  in  seeds,  such  as 
peas,  beans,  etc.  Proteins  have  not  been  prepared 
artificially.  They  are  composed  of  carbon,  hydrogen, 
nitrogen,  oxygen,  and  salts,  and  may  also  contain 
sulphur,  phosphorus,  and  iron. 

Classification. — Since  the  exact  composition  of  the 
proteins  is  not  understood,  an  exact  classification  is  im- 
possible; two  methods  are  adopted.  The  first  depends 

11  161 


162  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

upon  their  source,  and  divides  them  into  two  classes: 
native  proteins,  which  may  be  isolated  without  loss  of 
their,  properties;  and  derived  proteins,  which  are  de- 
rived by  the  action  of  heat  and  reagents  upon  native 
proteins.  The  second  method  of  classification  is  accord- 
ing to  their  composition  and  subdivides  them  into  simple 
proteins,  conjugated  proteins,  and  derived  proteins. 

Simple  Proteins. — These  yield  only  alpha-amino- 
acids  or  their  derivatives,  and  are  found  in  muscle,  albu- 
mins, globulins,  and  in  all  fluids  of  the  body,  except 
tears  and  sweat.  Under  the  influence  of  HC1,  the 
nitrogen  of  the  protein  is  subdivided  into  four  forms, 
viz.,  NH3,  amido-  and  di-amido-acids,  and  a  guanidin 
residue.  Alkalis  cause  the  nitrogen  to  split  off  as  NH3 
and  a  part  of  the  sulphur  to  form  a  sulphid;  the  other 
part  of  sulphur  forms  sulphates.  Hydrolytic  agents, 
such  as  dilute  acids  and  certain  ferments,  split  the 
simple  protein  molecules  into  proteins  of  lower  molec- 
ular weight;  these  are  readily  diffusible,  and  are  no 
longer  coagulated  by  heat. 

Tests. — Heat  some  of  the  substance  with  HN03;  a 
coagulation  of  the  protein  takes  place. 

Heller's  Test. — Upon  a  layer  of  HNO3  cautiously  add 
a  solution  of  protein:  a  white  opaque  ring  is  formed  at 
the  point  of  contact. 

Solutions  of  the  heavy  metals  coagulate  proteins. 
This  explains  the  use  of  albumin  as  an  antidote  in 
metallic  poisoning. 


PROTEINS  163 

Potassium  ferrocyanid,  picric  acid,  tannic  acid,  and 
trichloracetic  acid  also  precipitate  proteins. 

Subdivisions  of  Simple  Proteins. — Albumins  are  sol- 
uble in  water  and  coagulated  by  heat,  such  as  white  of 
egg,  serum-albumin  of  the  blood  and  serous  fluid,  lactal- 
bumin  of  milk,  and  myo-albumin  of  muscle. 

Globulins  are  insoluble  in  water,  but  soluble  in  water 
containing  neutral  salts,  and  are  coagulated  by  heat. 
They  are  found  in  milk,  blood,  and  fibrinogen. 

Acid  and  alkaline  albumins  are  obtained  by  the  action 
of  acids  or  alkalis  upon  albumin.  Syntonin,  obtained 
during  digestion,  is  an  acid  albumin. 

Coagulated  proteins  are  obtained  by  action  of  heat, 
enzymes,  or  acids  on  native  proteins,  and  have  been 
found  in  the  liver  and  other  glands.  Fibrin  is  a  coagu- 
lated protein  formed  by  the  action  of  fibrin  ferment  upon 
the  fibrinogen  of  the  blood. 

Proteoses  are  hydrolytic  products  of  protein.  They 
are  soluble  in  water  and  not  coagulated  by  heat. 

Peptones  are  somewhat  similar  products,  and  are 
obtained  by  the  action  of  unorganized  ferments  upon 
proteins. 

Conjugated  or  Compound  Proteins. — These  contain 
the  protein  molecule  combined  with  other  molecules 
otherwise  than  as  a  salt.  Upon  hydrolysis  they  yield 
the  simple  protein  and  a  non-protein  substance.  They 
constitute  the  glycoproteins,  hemoglobins,  nucleopro- 
teins,  and  phosphoproteins. 


164  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

Gly co proteins. — These  contain  a  carbohydrate  group, 
capable  of  reducing  alkaline  copper  sulphate  solution, 
such  as  the  mucins,  mucoids,  and  chondroproteins. 

Nudeo proteins. — These  proteins  are  composed  of 
nucleic  acid  combined  with  one  or  more  protein  mole- 
cules. 

Phosphoproteins. — The  proteins  of  this  group  contain 
a  simple  protein  molecule  combined  with  a  substance 
containing  phosphorus,  other  than  nucleic  acid  or  leci- 
thin. 

Derived  Proteins. — The  proteins  included  in  this 
group  are  obtained,  as  the  name  implies,  by  the  action 
of  acids,  alkalis,  heat,  or  enzymes  upon  proteins. 

MILK 

Milk  is  a  sweet,  opaque,  bluish-white  fluid,  secreted 
by  the  mammary  gland  of  the  mammalia.  The  com- 
position varies  in  different  animals,  but  always  contains 
the  necessary  elements  for  the  normal  development  of 
the  young  of  any  particular  animal. 

PERCENTAGE    COMPOSITION    OF    NORMAL    MILK 

(after  Holland) 

Cow.        Human. 

Water 87.41  87.29 

Solids,  as  tabulated  below 12.59  12.71 

Caseinogen 3.01  1.03 

Albumin •. 0.75  1.26 

Albuminoids 3.76  2.29 

Fats . .... 3.66  3.78 

Milk-sugar 4.92  6.04 

Ash 0.70  0.31 


MILK  165 

Its  density  varies  from  1.029  to  1.033,  and,  in  ex- 
treme cases,  may  vary  between  1.018  to  1.045. 

Reaction. — The  reaction  of  human  milk  and  that  of 
the  herbivora  is  generally  alkaline,  although  it  may  be 
amphoteric,  that  is,  it  may  be  both  acid  and  alkaline  at 
the  same  time,  due  to  the  presence  of  acid  phosphates 
and  also  secondary  phosphates. 

The  average  daily  quantity  secreted  by  a  woman  is 
i  liter. 

Standard  of  Strength.— Various  States  have  different 
standards.  The  average  standard  of  cows'  milk  is 
that  it  should  contain  not  less  than  13  per  cent,  of  total 
solids,  3.5  per  cent,  of  which  is  fat. 

Preservation. — Milk  may  be  prevented  from  under- 
going fermentation  by  refrigeration  or  by  sterilization. 
If  subjected  to  a  temperature  below  59°  F.,  it  may  be 
kept  several  days  without  change.  Cold  does  not 
preserve  milk  indefinitely;  nor  will  it  kill  bacteria  or 
alter  the  toxalbumins  it  may  have  contained,  but  will 
retard  their  development. 

The  best  method  of  preservation  is  sterilization.  It 
has  been  conclusively  proved  that  at  a  temperature  of 
154°  to  167°  F.  the  digestibility  is  not  altered,  but 
this  degree  of  heat  will  destroy  any  saprophytic  germs 
that  the  milk  may  contain.  This  process  is  best  con- 
ducted in  a  steam  sterilizer.  Sufficient  milk  for  one 
feeding  is  placed  in  separate  bottles,  loosely  stoppered 
with  absorbent  cotton,  which  permits  the  escape  of 


166  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

steam,  but  prevents  the  admission  of  germs  from  the 
air.  These  bottles  are  placed  in  the  sterilizer  and  al- 
lowed to  steam  for  forty-five  minutes.  They  are  then 
placed  upon  ice  until  required  for  use.  Pasteurizing  will 
not  destroy  the  toxalbumins  or  poisons  the  milk  may 
have  contained. 

Milk  contains  oxidizing  enzymes  whose  functions 
are  to  aid  its  digestibility.  These  enzymes  are  de- 
stroyed by  heating  above  167°  F.,  and  their  presence 
is  shown  by  shaking  in  a  test-tube  10  c.c.  of  milk  with 
i  c.c.  of  freshly  prepared  tincture  of  guaiac,  5  c.c.  of 
turpentine,  and  5  c.c.  of  H2O2;  a  blue  color  will  de- 
velop. The  absence  of  such  color  indicates  that  the 
enzyme  has  been  destroyed. 

Detection  of  Preservatives  in  Milk. — Under  no  con- 
dition is  it  justifiable  to  use  any  chemical  preservatives 
in  milk,  as  they  retard  digestion. 

Formaldehyd. — Into  a  test-tube  place  some  HiSC^ 
containing  a  trace  of  ferric  chlorid.  Upon  this  add 
cautiously,  so  as  not  to  mix  the  liquids,  the  milk  to  be 
tested,  and  in  the  presence  of  formaldehyd  a  blue  or 
purple  color  will  develop. 

Borax  or  Boric  Acid. — Place  in  an  evaporating  dish 
i  drop  of  milk  with  2  drops  of  HC1  and  2  drops  of  tinc- 
ture of  turmeric.  Dry  the  mixture  on  a  water-bath, 
cool,  and  add  i  drop  of  NH4OH  by  means  of  a  glass  rod. 
A  greenish  color  indicates  borax  or  boric  acid. 

Salicylic   Acid. — Acidify    25   c.c.    of   the   milk   with 


MILK  167 

acetic  acid,  boil,  and  filter.  The  filtrate  is  extracted 
with  ether  by  shaking  in  a  separately  funnel.  The 
ethereal  extract  is  separated  and  shaken  with  a  very 
dilute  solution  of  ferric  chlorid,  which  will  impart  a 
violet  color  to  the  aqueous  layer  if  salicylic  acid  is 
present. 

Benzole  Acid. — This  is  shown  in  a  similar  manner  as 
the  preceding  test,  but  the  filtrate  is  shaken  with  H2O2 
before  extracting  with  ether.  The  H202  converts  the 
benzoic  acid  into  salicylic  acid. 

Milk  upon  standing  separates  into  two  layers,  the 
change  being  complete  in  twelve  hours.  The  upper 
layer,  known  as  the  cream,  contains  practically  all  the 
fat.  The  lower  layer  is  skimmed  milk. 

From  the  table  of  the  composition  of  milk  it  will 
be  seen  that  human  milk  differs  from  cows'  milk  in  con- 
taining about  half  the  percentage  of  proteins  and  in- 
organic salts  and  about  one-third  more  of  lactose,  or 
milk-sugar.  It  also  contains  a  protein  rich  in  sulphur, 
opalisin,  found  exclusively  in  human  milk.  When  the 
child  is  fed  upon  artificial  milk  it  should  be  so  modified 
as  to  contain  the  same  percentage  of  the  several  ingre- 
dients as  contained  in  mothers'  milk.  The  quantities 
are  not  definite  for  the  entire  period  of  infant  growth, 
and  are  changed  periodically. 

A  graduate  known  as  the  "Materna"  (Fig.  i)  is  made 
especially  for  this  purpose,  and  simplifies  the  preparation 
of  such  milk  without  the  need  of  any  calculation.  Its 


i68 


CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 


outer  circumference  is  divided  into  seven  panels,  each 
showing  the  quantity  of  milk-sugar,  milk,  cream,  lime- 


Fig,  i. — Estraus  materna  graduate. 

water,  and  water  to  be  used  to  produce  a  milk  of  desired 
strength  for  a  child  of  certain  age. 

URINE 

The  urine  is  the  most  important  animal  excretion. 
In  it  are  to  be  found  the  nitrogenous  waste  of  catab- 
olism  and  soluble  mineral  salts. 

It  varies  widely  in  its  composition,  being  influenced 
by  the  quantity  and  kind  of  food  and  drink,  the  state  of 
digestion,  muscular  and  nervous  activity,  temperature, 
etc. 


URINE 


169 


AVERAGE  COMPOSITION  OF  NORMAL  URINE  (after  Holland) 

Percentage 
composition. 

Water 96.000 

Solids,  as  tabulated  below 4.000 

Urea 2.000 

Uric  acid 0.040 

Hippuric  acid 0.075 

Creatinin 0.075 

Pigment,    mucus,    xanthin,    other 

extractives,  etc 0.680 

Chlorids  of  sodium  and  potassium. .  0.680 

Sulphates  of  sodium  and  potassium,  o.no 

Phosphates  of  magnesium  and  cal- 
cium   0.080 

Phosphates  of  potassium 0.120 


Grains 

Grams 

per  diem. 

per  diem. 

50  fl.oz. 

1200  C.C. 

looo  gr. 

60.00  gm. 

500    « 

30.00     " 

10    " 

0.65     " 

15   " 

0-95     " 

15   " 

0-95     " 

170  " 

10.00      " 

170  " 

10.00      " 

40  " 

2.60    " 

30  " 

1-95     " 

45   " 

2.80    " 

Besides  these,  there  have  been  found  traces  of  indican, 
phenol,  and  other  aromatic  sulphates,  diastase,  oxalic, 
and  lactic  acids,  unoxidized  sulphur,  and  phosphorus. 

Color. — Normal  urine  is  generally  pale  yellow  or 
reddish  yellow,  but  may  be  practically  water  white,  due 
to  taking  excessive  quantities  of  water.  It  may  be  dark 
brown  when  little  water  has  been  consumed.  A  brown- 
ish-green color  indicates  the  presence  of  bile-pigments. 
The  coloring-matter  of  urine  is  believed  to  be  due  to 
several  agents,  viz.,  urobilin,  urochrome,  hematopor- 
phyrin,  and  uro-erythrin.  Indican,  a  decomposition 
product,  frequently  adds  color  to  the  urine.  Urine  may 
be  abnormally  colored  by  certain  vegetables,  drugs,  and 
chemicals,  and  also  by  blood  and  bile.  Methylene-blue 
imparts  a  blue  color;  rhubarb,  senna,  and  santonin  im- 
part a  yellow  color. 


1 70  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

When  first  voided  it  is  clear  and  transparent,  with 
faintly  aromatic  odor  and  acid  reaction.  Upon  stand- 
ing, a  cloudy  film  of  mucus  may  be  formed,  which 
slowly  sinks.  Its  acidity  increases.  If  allowed  to 
stand  in  a  warm  place  it  develops  an  ammoniacal  odor, 
due  .to  the  action  of  the  bacteria  urea  and  micrococcus 
urea  upon  urea,  converting  them  into  ammonium 
carbonate. 

Specific  Gravity. — The  specific  gravity  ranges  from 
1.012  to  1.030  or  higher.  A  specific  gravity  over  1.030 
indicates  sugar.  A  urine  of  low  specific  gravity  fre- 
quently denotes  albumin.  The  specific  gravity  must 
be  taken  from  the  total  urine  passed  in  twenty-four 
hours. 

Volume. — This  varies  under  normal  physiologic  con- 
ditions. It  may  range  from  900  to  1500  c.c.;  decreased 
in  acute  nephritis;  increased  in  chronic  nephritis,  dia- 
betes mellitus,  and  diabetes  insipidus. 

Reaction. — It  is  generally  acid,  but  may  become  neu- 
tral or  alkaline  shortly  after  passing.  The  acid  reaction 
is  due  to  monosodium  phosphate,  NaH2P04. 

Occasionally  it  may  be  both  acid  and  alkaline  (am- 
photeric),  owing  to  its  containing  both  alkaline  and  acid 
sodium  phosphates. 

Total  Solids. — The  average  amount  of  total  solids  is 
about  60  grams  per  diem,  of  which  one-half  is  urea.  It 
can  be  approximately  determined  from  the  specific 
gravity  by  multiplying  the  last  two  figures  of  the  specific 


URINE  171 

gravity  by  2.2.  For  instance,  1450  c.c.  of  urine  were 
voided  in  twenty-four  hours  with  a  specific  gravity  of 
1.018.  Multiplying  the  last  two  numbers  of  the  specific 
gravity  (18)  by  2.2  yields  39.6  in  1000  c.c.,  or  57.42,  for 
the  1450  c.c.  For  exact  determination  of  total  solids 
a  definite  volume  of  urine  is  evaporated  on  a  water-bath, 
and  the  weight  obtained  is  calculated  for  the  total 
quantity  passed  in  twenty-four  hours. 

Urea  (N2H4CO)  is  the  chief  solid  constituent  of  urine, 
and  is  also  most  important  physiological!^  as  well  as 
pathologically.  Urea  is  the  chief  nitrogenous  end- 
product  of  the  metabolism  of  proteins  in  the  body,  and 
carries  off  by  far  the  largest  quantity  of  all  the  nitrogen 
ingested  with  the  food.  The  daily  amount  excreted 
is  about  40  grams,  equal  to  all  the  other  solids  of  the 
urine.  The  determination  of  the  amount  of  urea  ex- 
creted gives  us  a  clinical  picture  of  the  metabolic  changes 
occurring  within  the  body.  In  diabetes  the  amount  of 
urea  secreted  is  increased.  In  degenerative  changes  of 
the  liver  there  is  a  diminution  of  urea  formation. 

Diet  also  plays  an  important  r61e  in  the  quantities 
of  urea  secreted.  A  protein  diet  will  increase  the  urea 
output.  Upon  a  strictly  vegetable  diet  it  is  decreased. 

Determination  of  Urea. — There  are  quite  a  number 
of  methods  suggested  for  the  determination  of  urea. 
The  simplest  method  giving  fairly  approximate  results 
is  Hinds'  modification  of  Doremus'.  The  Doremus- 
Hinds'  ureometer  (Fig.  2)  is  filled  with  a  solution  con- 


172 


CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 


sisting  of  equal  volumes  of  freshly  prepared  solution  of 
chlorinated  soda,  "Labarraque's  solution,"  and  sodium 
hydroxid,  care  being  taken  to  see  that  no  air  is  present. 
The  urine  is  placed  in  the  graduated  side  tube  and  a 


Fig.  2. — Doremus-Hinds'  ureometer. 

definite  amount  is  allowed  to  pass  into  the  ureometer. 
It  is  allowed  to  stand  for  thirty  minutes  and  the  per- 
centage of  urea  is  read  off  of  the  graduated  scale  of  the 
ureometer. 

PATHOLOGIC   CONSTITUENTS   OP   URINE   AND   TESTS 

Albumin. — Place  some  urine  in  a  test-tube  and  heat 
upper  portion.  If  a  cloud  appears,  it  may  be  due  to 
albumin  or  phosphates.  The  lower  cold  portion  will 
serve  as  a  guide  for  comparison.  Add  a  few  drops  of 
acetic  acid  until  acid  in  reaction.  If  the  cloud  clears  up, 
it  is  due  to  phosphates. 


PATHOLOGIC  CONSTITUENTS  OF  URINE  AND  TESTS  173 


Heller's  Test. — In  a  test-tube  or,  more  preferably,  a 
conical  wineglass  about  20  c.c.  of  urine  is  placed.  To 
this  is  added,  by  means  of  a  pipet,  HNO3  in  such  manner 
that  the  acid  flows  from  the  pipet  to  the  bottom  of  the 
vessel,  forming  two  distinct  layers.  If  albumin  is 
present,  a  white  cloud  will  appear  at  the  zone  of  con- 
tact. 

Potassium  Ferrocyanid. — 10  c.c.  of 
urine  are  acidified  with  5  to  10  drops 
of  acetic  acid,  and  to  the  mixture  is 
added  a  few  drops  of  solution  of 
potassium  ferrocyanid.  A  turbidity 
will  be  produced  in  the  presence  of 
albumin.  This  test  is  extremely  deli- 
cate, and  gives  no  reaction  with  phos- 
phates, peptones,  mucus,  alkaloids, 
urates,  or  pine  acids. 

The  quantitative  determination  of 
albumin  may  be  readily  carried  out 
by  Esbach's  albuminometer.  It  will 
not  give  correct  readings  in  amounts 
less  than  0.5  part  per  1000.  When 
the  albumin  ranges  high,  that  is, 
above  "four"  on  the  scale,  it  is  advisable  to  dilute  the 
urine  with  i  or  2  volumes  of  water,  and,  after  testing,  to 
multiply  the  result  by  2  or  3,  according  to  the  degree  of 
dilution.  If  the  urine  was  diluted  with  an  equal  volume 
of  water,  the  result  is  multiplied  by  2;  if  2  volumes  of 


Fig.  3.— Esbach's 
albuminometer,  im- 
proved form. 


174  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

water  were  taken  to  i  volume  of  urine,  the  result  is 
multiplied  by  3.  The  albuminometer  consists  of  a 
strong  glass  tube,  graduated  as  is  shown  in  Fig.  3. 
The  test  solution  consists  of  10  grams  of  picric  acid, 
20  grams  of  citric  acid,  dissolved  in  sufficient  water 
to  make  1000  c.c.,  or  i  liter.  The  tube  is  filled  to  the 
mark  "U"  with  clear  urine,  then  up  to  the  mark  "R" 
with  the  reagent  or  test  solution.  The  tube  is  closed 
with  the  stopper  and  the  contents  mixed  by  reversing 
the  tube  about  ten  times.  It  is  then  to  remain  in  the 
upright  position  for  twenty-four  hours.  The  height  of 
the  sediment,  read  off  on  the  etched  scale,  indicates  the 
weight  of  dried  albumin  in  1000  parts  of  urine. 

Carbohydrates. — Dextrose,  or  glucose,  is  present  in 
minute  amount  in  normal  urine.  It  may  also  be  present 
when  large  amounts  of  sugar  are  consumed  and  the 
system  unable  to  burn  it  up,  and  is  known  as  "ali- 
mentary glycosuria";  this  is  not  a  serious  condition. 

Determination. — Fehling's  test  solution  of  alkaline 
cupric  tartrate: 

Copper  Solution  No.  i.  Alkaline  solution  No. 2. 

Copper     sulphate,     in  Potassium    and    sodium 

pure  crystals. 34.64  gm.          tartrate 173  gm. 

Water      sufficient      to  Potassium  hydroxid 125     " 

make 500.00  c.c.  Water  sufficient  to  make .  500  c.c. 

These  solutions  are  preserved  separately  in  small, 
well-stoppered  bottles,  and  when  required  for  use  are 
mixed  in  equal  proportions.  If  these  solutions  are 


PATHOLOGIC  CONSTITUENTS  OF  URINE  AND  TESTS   175 

mixed  and  allowed  to  stand,  the  resultant  solution  de- 
composes and  becomes  worthless.  To  make  sure  that 
the  solution  is  good  it  is  tested  by  boiling,  and  if  no 
change  occurs  it  can  be  deemed  to  be  all  right. 

The  test  is  conducted  by  diluting  the  mixed  Fehling's 
solution  with  some  water  and  heating,  keeping  the  solu- 
tion just  below  the  boiling-point.  The  urine  is  added 
drop  by  drop  and  a  yellowish  or  brick-red  precipitate 
will  take  place  in  the  presence  of  sugar.  If  the  quantity 
is  small,  this  will  only  take  place  after  standing  for  some 
time. 

H aines'  Test. — The  reagent  is  made  by  dissolving  30 
gr.  of  pure  crystallized  copper  sulphate  in  J  fluidounce 
of  distilled  water,  adding  f  fluidounce  of  glycerin  and 
5  fluidounces  of  U.  S.  P.  Liquor  potassa.  This  solution 
is  stable.  In  applying  the  test  i  dram  of  the  solution  is 
boiled  in  a  test-tube,  adding  8  to  10  drops  of  urine,  and 
again  boiling.  In  the  presence  of  sugar  a  red  pre- 
cipitate of  cuprous  oxid,  Cu2O,  is  deposited. 

Purdy's  Test. — This  is  both  a  qualitative  and  quanti- 
tative method,  and  has  the  advantage  of  being  quickly 
conducted,  with  a  fair  degree  of  accuracy. 

The  solution  consists  of  the  following: 

Copper  sulphate 4-742  gin. 

Potassium  hydroxid 23.500    " 

Concentrated  ammonia- water 450.000  c.c. 

Glycerin 38.000     " 

Water  sufficient  to  make looo.ooo     " 

35  c.c.  of  this  solution  represents  0.020  gm.  of  glucose. 


176  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

The  test  is  conducted  as  follows:  35  c.c.  of  the  solu- 
tion are  accurately  measured  from  a  buret  and  diluted 
with  2  volumes  of  water.  From  another  buret  the  urine 
is  slowly  discharged,  drop  by  drop,  into  the  boiling 
solution  contained  in  an  evaporating  dish  until  the 
color  begins  to  fade,  then  more  slowly,  three  to  five 
seconds  between  each  drop,  until  the  blue  color  entirely 
disappears  and  a  perfectly  transparent  colorless  solution 
is  produced.  This  must  be  done  quickly,  as  it  turns 
blue  upon  standing.  The  result  is  then  calculated. 

It  requires  4  c.c.  of  urine  to  decolorize  Purdy's  solu- 
tion. We  know  that  the  35  c.c.  represents  0.020  gm.  of 
glucose;  then  by  calculation  we  obtain: 

Urine.  Glucose.  Urine.  Glucose. 

4  c.c.  :  0.020  :  :  100  c.c.  :  x  =  0.500  gm.  in  100 
c.c.,  or  0.5  per  cent. 

Bottger's  Test. — In  applying  this  test,  the  absence  of 
albumin  must  be  assured,  as  the  bismuth  will  be  turned 
black  by  the  sulphur  of  the  albumin.  If  albumin  is 
present,  it  must  first  be  removed  by  boiling  and  filtering. 

To  the  urine  an  equal  volume  of  KOH  solution  is 
added  and  a  few  grains  of  bismuth  subnitrate,  and 
boiled  for  half  a  minute.  If  sugar  is  present,  a  gray  or 
dark  brown  deposit,  finally  becoming  black,  will  be 
formed.  The  precipitate  is  either  bismuth  oxid  or 
metallic  bismuth,  or  a  mixture  of  both. 

Nylander's  Test. — The  solution  is  made  by  dissolving 
bismuth  subnitrate,  2  gm.,  potassium  and  sodium  tar- 


PATHOLOGIC  CONSTITUENTS  OF  URINE  AND  TESTS  177 

trate,  4  gm.,  sodium  hydroxid,  10  gm.,  in  90  c.c.  of  water 
and  filtering;  \  c.c.  of  the  solution  is  heated  with  5  c.c. 
of  urine.  A  brown  or  black  precipitate  will  form  after 
a  few  minutes'  boiling,  in  the  presence  of  sugar. 

Blood. — Urine  is  made  alkaline  with  NaOH  and  boiled. 
In  the  presence  of  blood,  the  precipitate  of  phosphates 
will  be  colored  red.  This  test  is  not  absolute,  as  any 
other  coloring-matter  the  urine  may  contain  will  pro- 
duce similar  results.  The  precipitate  is  filtered  and 
washed,  and  acetic  acid  added  to  the  precipitate  on  the 
filter.  In  the  presence  of  blood,  the  filtrate  will  be 
colored  red,  gradually  disappearing  upon  exposure  to 
air. 

A  mixture  of  freshly  prepared  tincture  of  guaiac  and 
ozonized  oil  of  turpentine  is  allowed  to  flow  down  the 
sides  of  a  test-tube  containing  urine  so  as  not  to  mix 
them.  If  blood  is  present  a  white  ring,  gradually  turn- 
ing blue,  will  appear  at  the  point  of  contact  of  the  two 
fluids.  In  place  of  the  turpentine  a  mixture  of  H2O2 
and  ether  may  be  used. 

Benzidin  Test. — 10  c.c.  of  urine  are  treated  with  i  c.c. 
of  glacial  acetic  acid,  and  to  the  mixture  a  third  of  its 
volume  of  ether  is  added,  with  5  to  10  drops  of  alcohol, 
and  well  shaken.  Upon  standing,  the  ether  separates 
as  an  upper  layer.  By  means  of  a  pipet  the  ethereal 
layer  is  removed  and  transferred  to  another  tube  con- 
taining the  benzidin  reagent,  made  by  mixing  0.5  c.c. 

of  a  freshly  prepared  solution  of  a  little  benzidin  in  2  c.c. 
12 


178  CHEMISTRY  FOR  NURSES 

glacial  acetic  acid  with  3  c.c.  H2O2.  If  blood  is  present, 
the  reagent  turns  green  or  blue  in  two  minutes;  after 
five  minutes  it  changes  to  a  dirty  purple. 

Bile. — Gmelin's  Test. — To  a  mixture  of  HN03,  con- 
taining some  nitrous  acid,  contained  in  a  test-tube, 
some  urine  is  added,  so  as  not  to  mix  the  two  liquids. 
If  bile  is  present,  a  play  of  colors  will  be  produced — 
green,  blue,  violet,  red  and  yellow,  or  yellowish  green. 

Pettenkofer's  Test. — Cane-sugar  is  dissolved  in  some 
of  the  urine  to  be  tested,  and  concentrated  H2SO4  is 
allowed  to  trickle  down  the  side  of  the  inclined  test- 
tube.  In  the  presence  of  bile,  a  play  of  color  is  seen, 
finally  becoming  cherry  red. 

Pus. — In  the  presence  of  pus,  urine  treated  with  solu- 
tion of  KOH  will  produce  a  tough,  gelatinous  mass. 

H2O2  added  to  urine  containing  pus  will  give  an 
effervescence  of  oxygen,  but  this  is  not  absolute,  as  other 
substances  the  urine  may  contain  will  produce  a  similar 
result. 

Indican. — Add  to  the  urine  an  equal  volume  of  HC1. 
Mix  thoroughly,  and  then  add  a  few  drops  of  H2O2, 
and  allow  to  stand  a  few  minutes.  To  the  mixture  5  c.c. 
of  chloroform  is  added,  and  well  shaken.  Allow  to 
stand,  and  if  indican  is  present,  the  chloroform  will 
be  turned  blue. 

Acetone. — To  a  test-tube  half-full  of  urine  add  a 
few  drops  of  strong  solution  of  NaOH  and  a  5  per  cent, 
solution  of  sodium  nitroprussid.  The  mixture  be- 


PATHOLOGIC  CONSTITUENTS  OF  URINE  AND  TESTS   179 

comes  red,  but  will  turn  to  purple  by  addition  of  an 
excess  of  glacial  acetic  acid,  in  the  presence  of  acetone. 

The  urine  is  made  alkaline  with  NaOH,  boil,  and  filter. 
To  the  filtrate  a  few  drops  of  Lugol's  solution  is  added, 
and  gently  heated.  If  acetone  is  present  small  yellow 
crystals  of  iodoform  will  be  produced. 

Di-acetic  Acid. — To  the  urine  some  solution  of  ferric 
chlorid  is  added,  drop  by  drop,  and  the  precipitate  of 
iron  phosphate  is  removed  by  filtration.  The  filtrate 
is  treated  with  more  ferric  chlorid.  when,  in  the  pres- 
ence of  diacetic  acid,  a  wine  color  is  produced,  disap- 
pearing upon  boiling. 


INDEX 


ACETANILID,  149 

Acetates,  135 
Acetic  acid,  135 

ether,  133 
Acetone,  130 

Acetylene  hydrocarbons,  121 
Acid,  acetic,  135 

amino-,  139 

ammo-acetic,  139 

aminoformic,  139 

anhydrid,  39 

benzoic,  146 

boric,  45 

bromic,  67 

bromous,  67 

butyric,  135 

carbamic,  139 

carbonic,  41 

chloric,  67 

chlorous,  67 

cholic,  139 

chromic,  95 

citric,  138 

definition  of,  12 

dibasic,  136 

formic,  135 

gallic,  148 

halogen,  67 

hippuric,  139 

hydriodic,  64 

hydrobromic,  66 

hydrochloric,  61 

hydrocyanic,  43 


Acid,  hydrofluoric,  67 
hypophosphorous,  55 
igasuric,  157 
iodic,  67 
iodous,  67 
lactic,  137 
malic,  138 
metaboric,  46 
metaphosphoric,  58 
muriatic,  61 
nitric,  35 

nitrohydrochloric,  62 
nitromuriatic,  62 
oleic,  136 
oxalic,  136 
perbromic,  67 
perchloric,  67 
per-iodic,  67 
phosphoric,  57 

glacial,  58 
phosphorous,  56 
phthalic,  150 
picric,  143 
prussic,  43 
pyrogallic,  140 
pyrophosphoric,  58 
pyrosulphuric,  51 
radicle,  14 
salicylic,  146 
stearic,  136 
sulphuric,  50 
fuming,  51 
sulphurous,  50 


181 


182 


INDEX 


Acid,  tannic,  148 

tartaric,  138 

taurocholic,  140 

thiosulphuric,  52 

valeric,  135 
Acids,  amino-,  139 

classes  of,  13 

hydroxy,  138 

"meta-,"  46 

organic,  134 

"ortho-,''  46 

"pyro-,"  47 
Aconitin,  159 
Air,  37 

pressure  of,  37 
Alcohol,  absolute,  126 

ethyl,  126 

methyl,  125 
Alcohols,  125 
Aldehyds,  128 

Aliphatic  hydrocarbons,  120 
Alkali,  metals  of,  71 
Alkaline  earth,  metals  of,  81 
Alkaloids,  155 
Allotropism,  26 
Aluminum,  87 

hydroxid,  88 

sulphate,  88 
Alums,  88 
Amids,  140 
Amino-acids,  139 
Amins,  140 
Ammonia,  32 

aromatic  spirits  of,  81 
Ammonia-water,  33,  80 
Ammonium  bromid,  81 

carbonate,  80 

chlorid,  81 
troches  of,  81 

compounds,  80 

hydroxid,  80 

iodid,  81 


Ammonium  nitrate,  81 
Amygdalin,  44 
Amyl  nitrite,  133 
Anhydrous,  30 
Anilin,  148 
Antifebrin,  149 
Antimony,  116 

and  potassium  tartrate,  117 

chlorid.  117 

oxid,  117 

sulphid,  116 

wine  of,  117 
Apomorphin,  158 
Aqua  ammonia,  33 

regia,  62 
Aromatic  hydrocarbons,  141 

spirits  of  ammonia,  81 

sulphuric  acid,  50 
Arsenic,  114 

antidote,  115 

iodid,  115 

trioxid,  114 

Arseniuretted  hydrogen,  114 
Arsine,  114 
Aspirin,  147 
Atmosphere,  37 
Atom,  21 

Atomic  weight,  19 
Atropin,  158 

BARIUM,  85 

chlorid,  85 

dioxid,  85 
Bases,  18 
Beer,  127 
Belladonna,  158 
Benzaldehyd,  146 
Benzene,  142 

dihydroxy,  145 
Benzine,  123 
Benzoic  acid,  146 
Benzole,  142 


INDEX 


183 


Biliary  salts,  140 
Binary  acids,  13 
Bismuth,  104 

and  ammonium  citrate,  106 

citrate,  106 

elixir,  106 

subcarbonate,  105 

subgallate,  106 

subnitrate,  105 

subsalicylate,  106 
Black  draught,  87 

lead,  38 

Bleaching  powder,  59 
Blood  in  urine,  177 
Blue  mass,  109 

ointment,  no 

pill,  no 

vitriol,  103 
Borax,  47 
Boric  acid,  45 

ointment,  46 
Boron,  45 
Brandy,  127 
Brimstone,  48 
British  gum,  154 
Bromin,  65 
Bromoform,  125 
Brucin,  157 
Butane,  122 
Butter  of  antimony,  117 

CALCINATION,  82 
Calcium,  82 

bromid,  84 

carbonate,  83 

chlorid,  84 

hypophosphite,  83 

oxid,  82 

sulphate,  84 
Calomel,  no 
Camphor,  152 
Cane-sugar,  154 


!arbamic  acid,  139 
Carbamid,  141 
Carbo  animalis,  39 
ligni,  39 

Carbohydrates,  153 
Carbon,  38 
amorphous,  38 

compounds,  identification  of,  1 20 
dioxid,  38 

snow,  40 
disulphid,  52 
monoxid,  42 

hemaglobin,  42 
Carbonates,  42 
Carbonic  acid,  41 
anhydrid,  39 
oxid,  42 
Carron  oil,  83 
Cataplasma  kaolini,  46,  89 
Caustic  potash,  72 

soda,  72 
Celluloid,  154 
Cellulose,  153 
Chalk  mixture,  83 
precipitated,  83 
Charcoal,  38 
Chemistry,  n 

physiologic,  161 
Chili  saltpeter,  76 
China  clay,  89 
Chloral,  130 

hydrate,  130 
Chlorin,  59 

acids  of,  67 
Chlorin-water,  60 
Chloroform,  124 
liniment,  124 
Chloroform- water,  124 
Chromic  acid,  95 
Chromium,  95 
sulphate,  96 
trioxid,  95 


i84 


INDEX 


Cinchonidin,  156 

Cinchonin,  156 

Cinnabar,  109 

Citric  acid,  138 

Coal  oil,  123 

Coal-tar,  142 

Cobalt,  97 

Cocain,  159 

Codein,  157 

Collodion,  cantharidal,  153 

flexile,  154 

styptic,  153 
Collodions,  153 
Compound  ethers,  132 
Copper,  1 02 

carbonate,  103 

nitrate,  103 

oxid,  103 

sulphate,  103 
Copperas,  91 
Corrosive  sublimate,  in 
Creosote,  145 
Creosote- water,  145 
Cresols,  144 
Creta  preparata,  83 
Cyanogen,  43 

DELIQUESCENCE,  30 
Dermatol,  106 
Destructive  distillation,  32 
Dextrin,  154 
Diamond,  38 
Diastase,  126 
Donovan's  solution,  115 

EFFLORESCENT,  30 
Elements,  n 

found  in  body,  n 

metallic,  68 

non-metallic,  22 
Elixir,  bismuth,  106 


Elixir,  vitriol,  50 

Emplastrum  hydrargyrum,  no 

Emulsin,  44 

Epsom  salt,  87 

Eserin,  160 

Esters,  132 

Ethane,  122 

monochlor,  125 
Ether,  acetic,  133 

spirits  of,  131 
Ethers,  131 

compound,  132 

haloid,  123 
Ethyl  acetate,  133 

alcohol,  126 

carbamate,  139 

chlorid,  125 

ether,  132 

nitrite,  133 
Exsiccated,  30 


FATS,  127 

Ferric  hydroxid,  90 

Ferrous  bromid,  92 

carbonate,  91 
mass  of,  92 
pills  of,  92 
saccharated,  92 

chlorid,  91 

iodid,  92 

sulphate,  91 
Flake  white,  100 
Flash-light  powders,  86 
Flowers  of  sulphur,  48 
Fluorin,  66 
Fluorspar,  66 
Formaldehyd,  129 
Formic  acid,  135 
Fowler's  solution,  114 
Fuming  sulphuric  acid,  51 
Furfurol,  151 


INDEX 


GALENA,  99 

Gallic  acid,  148 

Gasolene,  123 

Glacial  phosphoric  acid,  58 

Glass,  45 

Glauber's  salt,  74 

Globulins,  163 

Glucose,  155 

Glycerin,  127 

nitro-,  127,  134 

suppositories,  127 
Glycerite,  acid,  tannic,  127 

boro-,  127 

phenol,  127 
Glycerol,  127 
Glycin,  139 
Glycocoll,  139 
Goulard's  extract,  100 
Grape-sugar,  155 
Graphite,  38 
Gray  powder,  109 
Green  vitriol,  91 
Griffith's  mixture,  92 
Guaiacol,  146 
Gum,  British,  154 
Gun-cotton,  153 
Gypsum,  84 

HALOGENS,  58 

acids  of,  67 

derivatives  of,  123 
Haloid  ethers,  1 23 
Heroin,  158 

Heterocyclic  hydrocarbons,  150 
Hexane,  122 
Hive  syrup,  117 
Hoffmann's  anodyne,  131 
Homologous,  122 
Homologues,  122 
Hydrastin,  160 
Hydriodic  acid,  64 
Hydrobromic  acid,  66 


Hydrocarbons,  122 

acetylene,  121 

aliphatic,  120 

aromatic,  141 

heterocyclic,  150 
Hydrochloric  acid,  61 
Hydrocyanic  acid,  43 
Hydrofluoric  acid,  67 
Hydrogen,  22 

arseniuretted,  114 

dioxid  or  peroxid,  30 

phosphoretted,  54 

replaceable,  14 

sulphid,  49 

Hydroxybenzenes,  142 
"Hypo,"  52,  75 
Hypophosphorous  acid,  55 

INDICAN  in  urine,  178 

Infusion  of  senna,  compound,  87 

lodin,  62 

ointment  of,  64 

solution  of,  64 

tincture  of,  64 
lodoform,  124 
lodol,  151 
Iron,  89 

by  hydrogen,  89 

chlorid,  90 
tincture  of,  90 

hydroxid,  90 

hypophosphite,  92 

iodid,  92 
pills  of,  92 
syrup  of,  92 

phosphate,  92 

protochlorid,  90 

pyrites,  89 

scales  salts  of,  92 

subsulphate,  91 

sulphate,  91 
dried,  91 


i86 


INDEX 


Iron  sulphate,  solution  of,  91 
Isomeric    aromatic    hydrocarbons, 

144 
Isomerism,  144 

KAOLIN,  89 

cataplasma  of,  89 
Ketones,  130 

LABARRAQUE'S  solution,  84 
Lac  sulphur,  48 
Lactose,  154 
Laughing-gas,  34 
Lead,  99 

acetate,  101 

carbonate,  100 

iodid,  102 

nitrate,  101 

oxid,  100 

plaster,  101 

red,  TOO 

sugar  of,  101 
Lime,  82 

chlorid  of,  59,  83 

chlorinated,  59,  83 

milk  of,  82 

syrup  of,  83 
Lime-water,  82 
Liniment,  chloroform,  124 

of  lime,  83 

soap,  128 
Liquid  glass,  45 
Liquor  antisepticus,  46 

arsenii  et  hydrargyri  iodidi,  115 

calcis,  83 

chlori  compositus,  60 

iodi  compositus,  64 

sodae  chlorinata,  84 

phosphatis  compositus,  75 
Litharge,  100 
Lithium,  80 

benzoate,  80 


Lithium  bromid,  80 

carbonate,  80 

citrate,  80 

salicylate,  80 
Lugol's  solution,  64 
Lunar  caustic,  108 

MAGNESIA,  calcined,  86 

milk  of,  86 
Magnesium,  86 

carbonate,  86 

oxid,  86 

ponderosa,  86 

sulphate,  87 
Malic  acid,  138 
Manganese,  93 

dioxid,  93 

hypophosphite,  94 

sulphate,  94 
Mass,  21 

Massa  hydrargyrum,  109 
Matches,  53 
Materna  graduate,  168 
Matter,  21 
Menthol,  152 
Mercaptans,  131 
Mercaptols,  131 
Mercury,  109 

ammoniated,  113 

chlorids,  no 

cyanid,  43 

iodid,  112 

nitrate,  112 

ointment  of,  113 

oxid,  no 

plaster,  no 

subsulphate,  113 

sulphid,  113 

with  chalk,  109 
"Meta,"  144 
Meta-acids,  46 
Metaboric  acid,  46 


INDEX 


187 


Metallic  elements,  68 
Metals,  heavy,  68 

light,  68 

Metaphosphoric  acid,  57 
Methane,  122 

tribromid,  125 

trichlorid,  124 

tri-iodid,  124 
Methyl  alcohol,  125 

chlorid,  124 

salicylate,  134 
Milk,  164 

of  sulphur,  48 

preservatives,  165 

sugar  of,  154 
Mixture,  Griffith's,  92 
Molecular  weight,  20 
Molecules,  21 
Monsel's  solution,  91 
Morphin,  157 

di-acetyl,  158 
Muriatic  acid,  61 

NAPHTHALENE,  149 
Naphthols,  149 
Nickel,  96 
Nitric  acid,  35 
Nitrobenzene,  142 
Nitrogen,  31 

and  oxygen,  compounds  of,  34 

dioxid,  34 

monoxid,  34 

pentoxid,  35 

peroxid,  35 

trioxid,  35 

Nitroglycerin,  127,  134 
Nitrohydrochloric  acid,  62 
Nitromuriatic  acid,  62 
Nitrophenol,  143 
Nitrous  oxid,  34 
Nomenclature,  12 
Nucleoproteins,  163 


OIL,  carron,  83 

coal,  123 

mirbane,  142 

of  bitter  almonds,  146 

of  vitriol,  50 

of  wintergreen,  134 

phosphorated,  52 

volatile,  151 
Ointment,  boric  acid,  45 

citrine,  113 

diachylon,  101 

iodin,  64 

mercury,  no 

zinc  oxid,  97 
Oleic  acid,  136 
Opium,  157 

Organic  chemistry,  119 
"Ortho,"  144 
Ortho-acids,  46 
Oxyacids,  13 
Oxygen,  23 
Ozone,  25 

"PARA,"  144 
Paraffin,  120 

series,  122 
Paraldehyd,  129 
Pearl  white,  105 
Pentane,  122 
Peptones,  163 
Petrolatum,  123 
Phenol,  142 

trinitrate,  143 
Phenolphthalein,  150 
Phenols,  142 
Phenylamin,  148 
Phosphin,  54 
Phosphoproteins,  164 
Phosphoretted  hydrogen,  54 
Phosphoric  acid,  57 
Phosphorous  acid,  56 
Phosphorus,  52 


i88 


INDEX 


Phthalic  acid,  150 
Physiologic  chemistry,  161 
Physostigmin,  160 
Picric  acid,  143 
Pipe-clay,  89 
Plaster,  mercury,  no 

Paris,  84 

soap,  128 
Plumbago,  38 
Potassium,  72 

bicarbonate,  74 

bromid,  78 

carbonate,  73 

chlorate,  79 

dichromate,  96 

hydroxid,  72 

hypophosphite,  78 

iodid,  77 

nitrate,  76 

nitrite,  77 

permanganate,  94 

sulphate,  74 
Propane,  122 
Proteins,  coagulated,  163 

conjugated,  163 

derived,  164 

simple,  162 
Proteoses,  163 
Prussic  acid,  43 
Pyro-acids,  47 
Pyrogallol,  140 

phosphoric  acid,  58 

sulphuric  acid,  51 
Pyroxylin,  153 
Pyrrol,  151 

QUEVENNE'S  iron,  89 
Quinidin,  156 
Quinin,  156 

RED  lead,  100 
precipitate,  no 


Reduced  iron,  89 
Replaceable  hydrogen,  14 
Resorcin,  145 
Rochelle  salts,  138 
Rum,  127 

SACCHAROMYCES  cerevisia,  126 
Saccharose,  154 
Salicylic  acid,  146 
Sal  ammoniac,  81 

soda,  74 

volatile,  80 
Salol,  147 
Salt,  common,  77 
Saltpeter,  35,  76 
Salts,  17,  69 

acid  or  bisalt,  70 

basic  or  subsalt,  70 

biliary,  140 

double,  71 

Glauber's,  74 

normal,  69 

of  tartar,  73 
Seidlitz  powders,  138 
Silicon,  45 
Silver,  107 

cyanid,  108 

iodid,  109 

nitrate,  107 

oxid,  1 08 

Smith's  antidote,  44 
Soap,  Castile,  128 

liniment,  128 

plaster,  128 
Soaps,  128 
Soda  water,  40 
Sodium,  71 

arsenate,  115 

bicarbonate,  74 

bromid,  78 

carbonate,  73 

chlorid,  77 


INDEX 


189 


Sodium  hydroxid,  72 

hypophosphite,  78 

hyposulphite,  52 

iodid,  77 

nitrate,  76 

nitrite,  77 

phosphate,  75 
dried,  76 

granular  effervescent,  76 
solution  of,  76 

pyrophosphate,  76 

sulphate,  74 

sulphite,  76 

thiosulphate,  52,  78 
Solution,  Donovan's,  115 

Fowler's,  114 

lead  subacetate,  100 

Lugol's,  64 

potassium  arsenite,  114 

sodium  phosphate,  compound,  76 
Spirits  of  ammonia,  aromatic,  81 

of  chloroform,  124 

of  ether,  131 

of  niter,  133 
Starch,  154 
Stearic  acid,  136 
Stearoptens,  152 
Strontium,  84 
Strychnin,  157 
Sublimation,  no 
Sublimed  sulphur,  48 
Sugar,  154 

of  lead,  1 01 

of  milk,  154 
Sulphonal,  131 
Sulphur,  47 

dioxid,  49 

lotum,  48 

milk  of,  48 

precipitated,  48 
Sulphuretted  hydrogen,  49 
Sulphuric  acid,  50 


Sulphuric  acid,  aromatic,  51 
fuming,  51 

anhydrid,  39 

ether,  132 

Sulphurous  acid,  50 
Suppositories,  glycerin,  127 
Symbols,  12 
Syrup,  hive,  117 

of  hypophosphites,  79 

of  lime,  83 

of  squills,  compound,  117 

TANNIC  acid,  148 
Tartar  emetic,  117 
Tartaric  acid,  138 
Terpenes,  151 
Terpin  hydrate,  152 
Tests,  aluminum,  89 

ammonium,  81 

antimony,  118 

arsenic,  115 

barium,  85 

benzoic  acid,  146 

bismuth,  107 

borates,  46 

Bottger's,  170 

bromids,  66 

calcium,  84 

carbonates,  42 

chlorids,  61 

chromium,  96 

copper,  104 

Fehling's,  174 

Haines',  175 

Heller's,  173 

hydrochloric  acid,  61 

hydrogen  dioxid,  31 

hypophosphites,  55 

iodids,  63 

iron,  93 

lead,  102 

magnesium,  87 


I90 


INDEX 


Tests,  manganese,  95 

mercury,  113 

nitrates,  36 

phenol,  142 

potassium,  79 

Purdy's,  175 

salicylates,  146 

silver,  109 

sodium,  79 

sulphates,  51 

zinc,  99 

Tetra-iodopyrrol,  151 
Thiophen,  151 
Tincture  of  iodin,  64 

of  iron,  91 
Toluene,  142 
Trichloraldehyd,  130 
Trinitrophenol,  143 
Trional,  131 
Troches,  ammonium  chlorid,  81 

sodium  bicarbonate,  74 
Turpeth  mineral,  113 

UNGUENTUM  iodin,  64 

phenol,  142 
Urea,  141 
Ureids,  141 
Urethane,  139 
Urethanes,  139 
Urine,  168 

acetone  in,  178 

albumin  in,  172 

bile  in,  178 

blood  in,  177 

carbohydrates  in,  174 

di-acetic  acid  in,  179 

pathologic  constituents  of,  172, 
178 

pus  in, 178 

VALENCE,  14 
Valeric  acid,  135 


Veratrin,  136,  160 
"Vital  force,"  119 
Volatile  oils,  151 


WASHED  sulphur,  48 
Washing  soda,  74 
Water,  26 

ammonia-,  33,  80 

chlorin-,  60 

chloroform-,  124 

creosote-,  145 

distilled,  28 

drinking-,  28 

hard,  27 

mineral,  28 

of  crystallization,  30 

soft,  27 
Weight,  atomic,  19 

molecular,  20 
White  arsenic,  114 

lead,  100 

precipitate,  113 

vitriol,  97 
Wine,  dry,  127 

of  antimony,  117 

sweet,  127 

XYLENE,  142 

ZINC,  97 

acetate,  98 
bromid,  98 
carbonate,  98 
chlorid,  98 
oxid,  97 

ointment  of,  97 
phenolsulphonate,  97 
sulphate,  97 
valerate,  99 
white,  97 


Books  for  Nurses 


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Roberts'  Bacteriology  &  Pathology 

This  new  work  is  practical  in  the  strictest  sense.  Written 
specially  for  nurses,  it  confines  itself  to  information  that  the 
nurse  should  know.  All  unessential  matter  is  excluded.  The 
style  is  concise  and  to  the  point,  yet  clear  and  plain.  The  text 
is  illustrated  throughout. 

Bacteriology  and  Pathofogy  for  Nurses.  By  JAY  G.  ROBERTS,  Ph.  G., 
M.  D..  Oskaloosa,  Iowa,  isrno  of  206  pages,  illustrated.  $1.25  net. 


DeLee's  Obstetrics  for  Nurses 

Dr.  DeLee's  book  really  considers  two  subjects — obstetrics 
for  nurses  and  actual  obstetric  nursing.  Trained  Nurse  arid 
Hospital  Review  says  the  "book  abounds  with  practical 
suggestions,  and  they  are  given  with  such  clearness  that 
they  cannot  fail  to  leave  their  impress." 

Obstetrics  for  Nurses.  By  JOSEPH  B.  DELEE,  M.  D.,  Professor  of 
Obstetrics  at  the  Northwestern  University  Medical  School,  Chicago. 
i2mo  volume  of  508  pages,  fully  illustrated.  Cloth,  $2.50  net. 

Davis'  Obstetric  &  Gynecologic  Nursing 

NEW  (4th)  EDITION 

The  Trained  Nurse  and  Hospital  Review  says:  "  This  is  one 
of  the  most  practical  and  useful  books  ever  presented  to  the 
nursing  profession."  The  text  is  illustrated. 

Obstetric  and  Gynecologic  Nursing.  By  EDWARD  P.  DAVIS,  M.  D., 
Professor  of  Obstetrics  in  the  Jefferson  Medical  College,  Philadel- 
phia. i-2mo  volume  of  480  pages,  illustrated.  Buckram,  $1.75  net 

Macfarlane's  Gynecology  for  Nurses 

JUST  READY— NEW  (2d)  EDITION 

Dr.  A.  M.  Seabrook,  Woman's  Hospital  of  Philadelphia,  says: 
"  It  is  a  most  admirable  little  book,  covering  in  a  concise  but 
attractive  way  the  subject  from  the  nurse's  standpoint.  You 
certainly  keep  up  to  date  in  all  these  matters,  and  are  to  be 
complimented  upon  your  progress  and  enterprise." 

A  Reference  Handbook  of  Gynecology  for  Nurses.  By  CATHARINE 
MACFARLANE,  M.  D.,  Gynecologist  to  the  Woman's  Hospital  of  Phil- 
adelphia. 32mo  of  156  pages,  with  70  illustrations.  Flexible  leather. 
$1.25  net. 


McKenzie's  Exercise  in  Education  and  Medicine 

Exercise  in  Education  and  Medicine.  By  R.  TAIT 
MCKENZIK,  B.A.,  M.D.,  Professor  of  Physical  Educa- 
tion, and  Director  of  the  Department,  University  of 
Pennsylvania.  Octavo  of  406  pages,  with  346  illustra- 
tions. Cloth,  $3.50  net. 


JUST 
READY 


Bohm  &  Painter's  Massage 

The  methods  described  are  those  employed  in  Hoffa's  Clinic 
— methods  that  give  results.  Every  step  is  illustrated,  showing 
you  the  exact  direction  of  the  strokings.  The  pictures  are 
large. 

Octavo  of  QI  pages,  with  q?  illustrations.  By  MAX  BOHM,  M.  D., 
Berlin,  Germany.  Edited  by  CHARLES  F.  PAINTER,  M.  D.,  Professor 
of  Orthopedic  Surgery,  Tufts  College  Medical  School,  Boston. 

Cloth,  $1.75  net. 

Eye,  Ear,  Nose,  and  Throat  Nursing 

Medical  Record  says:  "Every  side  of  the  question  has  been 
fully  taken  into  consideration." 

Nursing  in  Diseases  of  the  Eye,  Ear.  Nose  and  Throat.  By  the 
Committee  on  Nurses  of  the  Manhattan  Eye,  Ear  and  Throat  Hospital, 
lamo  of  260  pages,  illustrated.  Cloth,  $1.50  net. 

Friedenwald  and  Ruhrah's  Dietetics  for 

lN  UrSCS  JUST  READY— NEW  (3d)  EDITION 

This  work  has  been  prepared  to  meet  the  needs  of  the  nurse, 
both  in  training  school  and  after  graduation.  American  Jour- 
nal of  Nursing  says  it  "is  exactly  the  book  for  which  nurses 
and  others  have  long  and  vainly  sought. ' ' 

Dietetics  for  Nurses.  By  JULIUS  FRIEDENWALD,  M.  D.,  Professor 
of  Diseases  of  the  Stomach,  and  JOHN  RUHRAH,  M.  D.,  Professor  of 
Diseases  of  Children,  College  of  Physicians  and  Surgeons,  Baltimore, 
izmo  volume  of  431  pages.  Cloth,  $1.50  net 

Friedenwald  &  Ruhrah  on  Diet 

Diet  in  Health  and  Disease.        By  Juuus 
WAI,D,  M.D.,  and  JOHN  RUHRAH,  M.D.     Octavo  vol- 
ume of  857  pages.  Cloth,  $4.00  net. 

Galbraith's   Personal  Hygiene  and  Physical 

Training  for    Women  ILLUSTRATED 

Personal  Hygiene  and  Physical  Training  for  Women.  By  ANNA  M. 
GALBRAITH,  M.  D.,  Fellow  New  York  Academy  of  Medicine.  12010 
of  371  pages,  illustrated.  Cloth,  $2.00  net. 

Galbraith's  Four  Epochs  of  Woman's  Life 

THE  NEW  (2d)  EDITION 

The  Four  Epochs  of  Woman's  Life.  By  ANNA  M.  GALBRAITH,  M.D. 
With  an  Introductory  Note  by  JOHN  H.  MUSSER,  M.  D.,  University 
of  Pennsylvania,  izmo  of  247  pages.  Cloth,  $1.50  net 


McCombs'  Diseases  of  Children  for  Nurses 

NEW  (2d)  EDITION 

Dr.  McCombs'  experience  in  lecturing  to  nurses  has  enabled 
him  to  emphasize/z/?/  those  points  that  nurses  most  need  to  know. 
National  Hospital  Record  says:  "We  have  needed  a  good 
book  on  children's  diseases  and  this  volume  admirably  fills 
the  want."  The  nurse's  side  has  been  written  by  head 
nurses,  very  valuable  being  the  work  of  Miss  Jennie  Manly. 

Diseases  of  Children  for  Nurses.  By  ROBERT  S.  McCOMBS,  M.  D., 
Instructor  of  Nurses  at  the  Children's  Hospital  of  Philadelphia.  12010 
of  470  pages,  illustrated.  Cloth,  $2.00  net 

Wilson's  Obstetric  Nursing  NEW  ^  EDITION 

In  Dr.  Wilson's  work  the  entire  subject  is  covered  from  the 
beginning  of  pregnancy,  its  course,  signs,  labor,  its  actual 
accomplishment,  the  puerperium  and  care  of  the  infant. 
American  Journal  of  Obstetrics  says:  "  Every  page  empasizes 
the  nurse's  relation  to  the  case." 

A  Reference  Handbook  of  Obstetric  Nursing.  By  W.  REYNOLDS 
WILSON,  M.D.,  Visiting  Physician  to  the  Philadelphia  Lying-in  Char- 
ity. 32010  of  355  pages,  illustrated.  Flexible  leather,  $1.25  net 


JUST    READY 
NEW  (8th)  EDITION 


American  Pocket  Dictionary 

The  Trained  Nurse  and  Hospital  Review  says:  "We  have 
had  many  occasions  to  refer  to  this  dictionary,  and  in  every 
instance  we  have  found  the  desired  information." 

American  Pocket  Medical  Dictionary.  Edited  by  W.  A.  NEWMAN 
DORLAND,  A.  M.,  M.  D.,  Loyola  University,  Chicago.  Flexible 
leather,  gold  edges,  $1.00  net;  with  patent  thumb  index,  $1.25  net 


THIRD 
EDITION 


Lewis'  Anatomy  and  Physiology 

Nurses  Joarnal  of  Pacific  Coast  says  "it  is  not  in  any  sense 
rudimentary,  but  comprehensive  in  its  treatment  of  the  sub- 
jects." The  low  price  makes  this  book  particularly  attractive. 

Anatomy  and  Physiology  for  Nurses.  By  LERov  LEWIS,  M.D.,  Lec- 
turer on  Anatomy  and  Physiology  for  Nurses,  Lewis  Hospital,  Bay 
City,  Mich.  i2mo  of  326  pages,  150  illustrations.  Cloth,  $1.75  net 


Boyd's  State  Registration  for  Nurses 

State  Registration  for  Nurses.  By  LOUIE  CROFT  BOYD,  R.  N.,  Grad- 
uate Colorado  Training  School  for  Nurses.  Price,  50  cents  net. 

Paul's  Materia  Medica  NEW  (2d)  EDITION 

A  Text-Book  of  Materia  Medica  for  Nurses.  By  GEORGE  P.  PAUL,  M.D., 
Samaritan  Hospital,  Troy,  N.  Y.  izmo  of  282  pages.  Cloth,  $1.50  net. 

Paul's  Fever  Nursing  NEw  ^  ED,T,ON 

Nursing  in  the  Acute  Infectious  Fevers.  By  GEORGE  P.  PAUL,  M.D. 
i2mo  of  246  pages,  illustrated.  Cloth,  $1.00  net., 

Hoxie  &  Laptad's  Medicine  for  Nurses 

JUST  READY-NEW  (2d)   EDITION,  REWRITTEN 

Medicine  for  Nurses  and  Housemothers.  By  GEORGE  HOWARD 
HOXIE,  M.D.,  University  of  Kansas;  and  PEARL  L.  LAPTAD.  i2mo 
of  351  pages,  illustrated.  Cloth,  $1.50  net. 

Grafstrom's  Mechano-therapy 


SECOND 
EDITION 

Mechano-therapy  (Massage  and  Medical  Gymnastics).       By  AXEL  V, 
GRAFSTROM,  B.Sc.   M.D.,     12010,  200  pages.  Cloth,  $125  net. 


NEW  (7th)   EDITION 


Nancrede's  Anatomy 

Essentials  of  Anatomy.  CHARLES  B.  G.  DENANCREDE,  M.D.,  Univers- 
ity of  Michigan.  i2mo,  400  pages,  180  illustrations.  Cloth,  $1.00  net 

Morrow's  Immediate  Care  of  Injured 

Immediate  Care  of  the  Injured.  By  ALBERT  S.  MORROW,  M.D.,  New 
York  City  Home  for  Aged  and  Infirm.  Octavo  of  354  pages,  with 
242  illustrations.  Clotb,  $2.50  .net.  New  (2d)  Edition 

Register's  Fever  Nursing 

A  Text  Book  on  Practical  Fever  Nu'sing.  By  EDWARD  C.  REGISTER, 
M.D.,  North  Carolina  Medical  College.  Octavo  of  350  pages,  illus- 
trated, t^loth,  $2.?o  net. 

Pyle's  Personal  Hygiene 


NEW  (5th)   EDITION 

A  Manual  of  Personal   Hygiene.    Edited  by  WALTER  L.  PYLE,  M.D. 
Wills   Eye  Hospital,  Philadelphia.     i2mo,  |zj  pages,  illus.    $1.50  net. 


Morris'  Materia  Medica 


NEw  (7th)  EDITION 

Essentials  of  Materia  Medica,  Therapeutics,  and  Prescription  Writing. 
By  HENRY  MORRIS,  M.D.  Revised  by  W.  A.  BASTEDO,  M.D.,  Colum- 
bia University,  N.  Y.  i2mo  of  300  pages,  illustrated.  Cloth,  $1.00  net. 


Griffith's  Care  of  the  Baby 


EDITION 

The  Care  of  the   Baby.    By  J.  P.  CROZER  GRIFFITH,  M.D.,  Univers- 
ity of  Pennsylvania.    12010  of  455  pages,  illustrated.     Cloth,  $1.50  net. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN  INITIAL  FINE  OF  25  CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
WILL  INCREASE  TO  5O  CENTS  ON  THE  FOURTH 
DAY  AND  TO  $1.OO  Otf  JtfE  SEVENTH  DAY 
OVERDUE.  _.  . 

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BIOLOGY 

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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 


